3 ISSUES FROM THE LITERATURE SINCE 1980
3.1 Methodology
The primary focus of this research was to collect material and prepare an annotated bibliography of all published and unpublished New Zealand reports. This material deals primarily with post-1980 research and focuses exclusively on exotic forestry literature.
There were two main steps in the research process:
- Contact with New Zealand universities and government departments to identify any relevant research material they might have.
- An extensive library search using the University of Otago library and associated systems. This included identifying and locating books, journals, theses and conference proceedings. Unless otherwise indicated all these searches covered the years 1980-1993.
The search for books and reports was carried out using the University of Otago computer network which links the Central, Science, Law, Medical, Dental and Hocken library literature into one system. A number of key words were used to uncover the literature (i.e. Forestry, Social Impact, rural communities etc.).
The journal search proved to be a little more difficult and a number of sources were used. These included the following abstract volumes:
(i) Geographical Abstracts
(ii) Current Geographical Publications
(iii) CAB Forestry Abstracts
(iv) Index New Zealand
Following this, an extensive search was made of those journals available in the Otago University Library System. A number of these proved to be very useful and included the following; New Zealand Agricultural Science, Planning Quarterly, New Zealand Journal of Forestry, New Zealand Forestry, and People and Planning. A great deal of literature was found in the 'New Zealand Geographical Society Proceedings' from 1979 to 1989.
The theses listed in the report were found primarily through the Union List of Higher Degree Theses in New Zealand Libraries' for the years 1980-1993. A number of other sources were also used;
(i) Register of Graduate Research in Geography in New Zealand.
(ii) New Zealand Geographer
(iii) Sociological journals
(iv) Contact with university departments to identify current research being undertaken.
The universities contacted were very helpful in identifying relevant theses. However, not many theses were found, and the number of theses done in this subject area is small in comparison to the total number of New Zealand theses completed since 1980.
This perhaps reflects the lack of general research done throughout New Zealand since the first 'wave' of literature in the 1980s. None of the universities appeared to act as a centre of research for investigating the social and economic impacts of forestry.
Some of the unpublished reports were found in conjunction with the University of Otago Library research, but many were located through correspondence with university and government departments.
A number of Abstract Indexes such as the 'Social Sciences Index', and the University Library system 'kiwinet' were not used and the Hocken Library has an extensive card catalogue system that was not fully utilised. However, while these processes were not covered, we are confident that the research techniques that were undertaken have turned up most, if not all the relevant literature.
3.2 Key Findings
When reviewing the literature on social and economic impacts of forest development on rural communities in New Zealand, a number of trends and important findings emerged.
- It was found that the bulk of relevant literature was from the early 1980s. Because the bibliography was post-1980, this has included most of these reports. The proliferation of material in this period has been explained by the 1981 Forestry Conference. This concentrated on the social and economic impacts of exotic forestry.
- It seems to have inspired research in this field, but unfortunately only for approximately the following two years. This makes the data 12 to 13 years old, and although historically significant, it is no value for identifying recent trends.
- The 56th ANZAAS Conference at Massey University in 1987 drew together a number of relevant forestry reports (Roche, Parore, Smith & Houghton). However many of these were prepared well before the 1987 date and limited research appears to have been inspired from this conference.
- A change in the economic climate of forestry in the late 1980s has had a 'slowing ups effect on the quantity of these social and economic studies. This is primarily thought to be due to the increasing focus on forestry as a viable profit making venture. The potential economic success of forestry has changed some rural community thinking, and this is evident with increasing agroforestry emerging.
- It was found that much of the literature that exists deals with the impact of an already established forest community. The purpose of this report was to address the impacts of forest development on rural communities. Therefore the actual documentation of forest development on a community is limited. This problem may improve in the future because of the implementation of the Resource Management Act (1991), and its obligations regarding Social Impact Assessments (SIA). The SIA will deal with the potential effects on the community, and also the situation of the community now. This will be far more useful in determining the impact that forestry development will have from start to finish.
- Another area of research was on the forestry towns (Chapple 1976 & McClintock 1983), commonly called 'synthetic communities'. These reports looked at the social and economic impacts of forest development on these communities. But unfortunately these communities were created entirely for the forest industry, and have no relevant literature on the rural communities in that area. Therefore the impacts on these communities would be completely divorced from a rural community based on farming.
- The forestry literature was predominantly based on physical and environmental issues, growing, harvesting and the economics of forestry, rather than social and economic impacts on the rural community. This was particularly evident with the Forestry Research Institute reports.
A number of common social characteristics emerged from the forestry community case studies.
These community concerns included:
- Rural Depopulation
- Ageing Population
- Declining Rural Services
- Unemployment
However there were different patterns illustrated by various reports.
- Rural Depopulation
Aldwell (1984) noted that forestry had slowed down the rate of population decline in Waiapu County. The NZFOA (1984) concluded that much rural depopulation has stopped and forestry can take the credit for this. While the effect of Corporatisation on Tapanui as reported by Houghton et al (1987), definitely led to population loss.
- Ageing Population
Much of the areas are characterised by an increasing ageing population. This was apparent in Tapanui when older couples from farms were retiring in the township (Houghton et al 1987). Aldwell (1984) also acknowledges this in Waiapu County, but forestry in the area has provided school children with holiday work, and school leavers with jobs. Thus it is also encouraging younger age groups to stay in the area.
- Declining Rural Services
Conflicting views exist concerning whether forestry contributes to closing rural services or maintains them. Even after corporatisation in Tapanui the school rolls were relatively unaffected (Houghton et al 1987). NZFOA (1984) concluded that forestry is reversing the trend of loss of infrastructure. It has created new housing and increased school rolls. Aldwell (1984) outlined that Waiapu County were concerned that better roading (associated with forestry development) would mean people would shop out of the district, and local services could not continue.
- Unemployment
Also prominent in many of these areas is unemployment Forestry employs a high proportion of workers from the rural areas (NZFOA 1984). Concerns exist that although large numbers are involved in planting and harvesting of plantations, the intervening years require lower numbers.
These results highlight the great diversity of situations in rural communities throughout various case studies in New Zealand. This emphasises the need for further conclusive research on a regional and local basis (Smith a,b,c 1981). These diverse results also reflect the opinion of the author and the respective organisations they represent. For example, pro or anti forestry groups.
- The impact of forestry development on the traditional rural farming community is obviously a concern that has initiated this scoping study. Historically there has been a considerable amount of resistance to forestry development expressed by the rural community. Rural communities were concerned about forestry expansion on to agricultural land, and the uncertainty regarding the continuation of rural business and service groups.
A number of supportive and opposing issues surround the development of forestry. Many of these arguments take completely opposing views, but are qualified to their respective studies, communities and dine periods. For simplicity these have been addressed as forestry development benefits and disadvantages.
Forestry Development Benefits
- Significant injection of spending derived from forestry employment in rural service towns (Gold & Houghton 1985).
- Exotic afforestation has reduced erosion in hill country areas (Aldwell 1984).
- Rural employment opportunities (Aldwell 1984).
- Guaranteed forest community activity during harvesting (Aldwell).
- An upturn in school rolls - good for ageing population (Aldwell).
- Forest headquarter expenditure in rural areas (Aldwell).
- Development of forestry has contributed population to Tapanui, and replaced population losses common to many rural districts (Houghton et al 1987).
- Forestry corporatisation has had a positive effect on new business (Houghton).
- Local business (Tapanui) turnover is largely dependent on timber processing (Houghton).
- Rural recession and high interest rates are largely responsible for the poor economic climate, not corporatisation (Houghton).
- Forest Owners Association says 'land best suited to agriculture should continue to be farmed' (NZFOA 1984). Refer to NZFOA (1984) summary for further discussion of positive/negative aspects of forestry seen through the Forest Owner's perspective.
Forestry Development Disadvantages
- Social and economic effects of forestry has caused changes for rural service delivery, and threatens those seeking an 'alternative' lifestyle, away from development (Aldwell).
- Pressure on housing, and commercial and industrial land during harvesting. Pressure on associated services, and concerns whether areas will cope with expansion (Aldwell).
- Improved roading will lead to greater access to distant markets, and reduce custom for the local store (Aldwell).
- Corporatisation led to population loss (Houghton).
- Large redundancy payments to forestry workers setting up new businesses created animosity amongst local business people (Houghton).
- Re-employment of workers after redundancies was of local residents, and did not improve the population loss (Houghton).
- Possible decrease in housing stock in rural communities through Corporatisation. These involved sell-offs to Housing Corp, and dramatic rent increases (Houghton).
- Corporatisation and redundancy fears placed families and the community under great stress (Houghton).
- Influx of highly skilled and higher paid people in to the rural community has a potential for conflict (Ministry of Works & Development and Northland United Council, 1982).
- Forest communities are not bound together like the traditional rural communities (McClintock & Taylor 1983).
- Forestry towns are located in an environment to meet the needs of industry, not the needs of human communities (McClintock & Taylor).
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