- 2.2.1 WORK OF FARM WOMEN
- 2.2.2 RECOGNISING THE CONTRIBUTION OF FARM WOMEN
- 2.2.3 RURAL BUSINESS WOMEN
- 2.2.4 OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS TO WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN THE RURAL ECONOMY
2.2 RURAL WOMEN - CHANGE AND DIVERSITY
2.2.1 WORK OF FARM WOMEN
A change in perception of women's work, including that carried out by farm resident women, is clear from research which shows that not only have rural women have been involved in business as long as rural men (e.g. Harper, 1980), but that there have always been significant numbers of women farmers (Dalziel, 1977). However, there has been little acceptance or recognition of women as farmers until recently, and government policy reflects this (Pomeroy, 1986: 90, 92). For example, the then Department of Agriculture provided home science training for "farmers wives" from the mid forties to late sixties to improve the living conditions of farm households. This extension activity recognised part of the work undertaken by women farmers and farm women, but under the culture of the day the contribution of the women to running the business of the farm was not recognised. The women themselves only really started recording their involvement in agricultural production in the population census in the seventies. Thus the proportion of women who stated in the census questionnaire that their main job was in the agriculture and livestock industry, was only 7% in 1951. This had grown to 20% by 1976, while by 1991 one-third of New Zealand's agriculture and livestock production workforce was female. The 1992 agricultural census shows that New Zealand's 50,669 farms with working owners/leaseholders or sharemilkers 49% had at least one female proprietor.
Likewise, the number of roles farm women carry out have broadened from those recorded in 1949 (WDFF, 1951) compared to those documented in 1993 (Taylor and Little, 1995). The work of farm women has expanded from home (cooking for non-family farm workers) and voluntary community work, to also include farm work and work in non-farm related business A fifth role is the involvement by farm women in farm ownership, and in farm management and decision-making (Taylor and Little, 1995). While there is increasing recognition of women's skills as managers and business operators, this recognition is not universal, particularly among the farm servicing community. Yet it is the innovation and business skills of these women which are needed to spearhead the development of the new enterprises required to broaden the rural economic base. For such enterprise development to take place there needs to be acceptance, appreciation and support.
Deirdre Shaw's research undertaken for an MA in Politics at Waikato University (1993: The Work of Farming Women) provides a useful insight into the work of farming women. Through the use of 48 hour "time use" diaries (in which every five minutes the actual tasks the woman is engaged in are recorded) Deirdre obtained an accurate picture of what women do on and off the farm.
From questionnaire surveys Deirdre obtained the opinions of farm women as to how they see themselves, and also how others (the rural service industry, the rural community and society) view these women in their farming role.
The majority of women (88%) viewed themselves as farmers, or in a farming occupation if they were non-owners. They undertook multiple tasks and saw their contribution in many ways: physical work on the property, financial, administrative, managerial, supportive and organisational.
Deirdre found that while about two-thirds of the women felt they were accepted in that role, comments from all the women made it clear that while society accepts men in farming without question, women have bad to prove themselves to be as knowledgeable and skilled as their male counterparts. Women are still faced with rural service people who are rude, insult their intelligence, or just ignore them in farm dealings and discussions.
Information obtained from the surveys of rural service industry people suggested the majority have outdated perceptions of the roles of farming women. Deirdre placed considerable emphasis on the lack of visibility of much of the work undertaken by the women, particularly work undertaken from the home. If women's work is unpaid and invisible then the women are invisible as beneficiaries of policy - be it private or public, social or economic. Level of recognition (or visibility) affects power status and influence in policy making. Not only does this impact on the ability of the woman herself to "get the job done", but it has serious ramifications for the effectiveness of industry, producer board, local and central government activities.
Diane Anderson's MA Thesis from Otago University Gender Division of Domestic Household labour on Family Farms in New Zealand [in process] showed from a time use study of 42 farm families that, as might he expected, farm women undertake more domestic work than farm men, and they also work in total nine hours more per week than do men. The difference in the amount of time men and women spend on work is reflected in the amount of time they each spend on leisure activities. The women studied spent on average 21.4 hours per week on leisure compared to 26.0 hours per week for men and the leisure time of the women was fragmented by domestic work activities. Diane also found that there was a statistically significant difference in the time spent by older men and women on leisure. While the leisure time of older men increases, that of older women does not.
2.2.2 RECOGNISING THE CONTRIBUTION OF FARM WOMEN
Scoping Report on the Contribution of Women to the Rural Economy (M-J Rivers. MAF Policy Technical Paper 92/4) In providing advice to Ministers and Cabinet on factors affecting the viability of farms/orchards, agricultural industries and rural communities, information was gathered to support policies which would assist in the development of, or removal of obstacles to, the growth and prosperity of the rural sector.
For some time women have voiced a concern that their work is not being fully recognised. Not only is their contribution to the economy going largely unnoticed, but there appear to be many obstacles which hinder women from working more effectively. With the suffrage centennial year approaching it was an ideal time to look at this situation more closely. Mary-Jane Rivers, who has worked on many socio-economic assessment projects, was asked to pull together published and unpublished material on the lives and activities of rural women. She also held informal meetings with key members of rural business and the community in Taranaki as a starting point for the study.
The task was to focus on the paid and un-paid work of rural women. An important part of this was to look at how New Zealanders regard work, and especially the work done by women. Mary-Jane found that many activities which women do, are not regarded as work - yet they are vital in running a business. While men receive status from their work, the status of many women as individuals often goes unnoticed. Many rural women are identified through their husbands' work, for example, farmer's wife, and this tends to undervalue their own activities
In her report, Mary-Jane compared the role and contribution of rural women today with that of rural women in the past; how this contribution stands alongside that of rural men, and alongside that of urban women and men. She also looked at the contribution of women working outside rural areas to agriculture industries, such as the involvement of women in the veterinary, horticultural and agricultural sciences, and at the proportion of advisory officers who are women. Increasing numbers of women are now enrolling and graduating as veterinary scientists.
Analysis of information on the participation of women in rural-related industries or occupations showed that few women were involved in public decision-making or leadership roles. Only a few women are in decision-making positions on industry boards, yet women tend to have a useful perspective which is helpful for finding solutions to industry; problems. Through a better understanding of what women do and how this work is regarded, it is hoped strategies can be developed to assist women contribute more effectively in the development of the rural sector.
In the scoping report Mary-Jane first looked at the historical position of women in the rural economy. Three phases were identified: 1850-1900 when women were predominantly involved in subsistence activities and the sale of home-made products; 1900-1930 when women worked within the home and men outside; 1930s-l980s (with emphasis on the 50s) when financial success and political involvement are reserved for men.
The scoping report has identified issues such as: the visibility of women (women are too often seen in terms of their husband's occupation, not their own); failure to recognise that many rural women are not from farms; the visibility of the work undertaken by rural and farm women, especially unpaid work; how voluntary work undertaken by rural women is valued; the recognition given to women who are involved in agriculture by their families, the business sector, farming organisations and the community. Those issues are now being investigated as part of the second phase of the project.
Acceptance of Female Involvement in Agriculture
As part of the follow-up to the Rivers report a questionnaire was sent out with reports, and 250 replies (mainly from women aged 35-64 years) were returned. There was seen to be growing recognition of the involvement of women in agriculture from the women's family. Women mentioned that there was now greater sharing "(family member) may help with dinner when you've been out working on the farm." and "The family know that even having a meal ready is part of the contribution.".
Views of women as farmers The business sector is, however, slow to recognise women as business people. Examples given by the women include: "Generally if you show that you know what you are talking about when wanting something you will be accepted better than if you don't. If you give no indication of any knowledge on a matter, you are considered to know nothing." and "The attitudes here are changing - be it all slowly and as an equal partner in the farm after 30 years the banker will accept my cashflow. Older men find it hard to give equal status, younger are more flexible." and "I am mainly seen as the helper not the main decision maker." and "No, often business people will not even discuss business on the phone with me or visit, unless the "man of the house" is present, as they presume you have no knowledge of such things."
The attitude of farming organisations towards women were seen to be improving slowly.
"Depends entirely on the individuals who comprise the organisation, much as in the business sector."
"It seems very clear that Federated Farmers is for men (with a few exceptions) and that women belong in WDFF. The Farm Forestry Association has a far more equal viewpoint, with most members being couples who both actively participate."
There was an interesting range of responses to a question about different approaches of business people to women and men. Some had positive experiences:
"I personally find that the stock firm employees in our area are very good and fully realise that there are a lot of well-qualified women about. The machinery firms are generally very understanding and co-operative."
Others found negative attitudes to women:
"They always ask for my husband when phoning."
"But they are afraid to change. The manager isn't available/maybe another day would be more suitable when you both can come/is your father in, dear? I had to prove to the tax department that I was capable of doing what I did on farm before I could be a registered partner."
"They are aware of it I think but often have difficulty accepting a farming partner wife as being equally involved. Sometimes getting to know the individuals helps as every case is different."
"Patronising explanations given (or none) when further information asked for."
"Stock firm agents only willing to relay information to husband."
"Messages for husband when topics concern us both."
"Find stock agents can be patronising to the point of ignoring me. My neighbours have also found this to be the situation."
"Some are downright rude, others condescending."
Access to Finance
While there is little published information on the access of rural women to finance for establishing/expanding their businesses, anecdotal information indicates that women tend to have greater difficulty obtaining such assistance than males. Again, in situations where women Jack confidence, this can be perpetuated by the tendency of males to dominant the conversation -whether with bankers of with salesmen. For example, even where both partners are meeting the bank lending officer, the discussion tends to be dominated by male farm partners. Studies cited in the report for non-rural lending suggest that when decision-makers have incomplete or unclear information they tend to fall back on unconscious and personally internalised stereotyped beliefs and behaviours. With few women bankers, the bias tends not to favour women.
Questions on difficulties by women accessing finance produced a mixed reaction While several answered: "Have not come across any problems", others had: "One has to make it very' plain that you are the one answerable if female. No one questions a male. I've done the farm accounts for years and run the business but the accountant and banker usually request both my husband and I be present at meetings and interviews. Maybe it is less threatening for them." "No discrimination in latter years - but initially we could not borrow as a couple for our farm - the first loan was set up in my husband's name. That has since changed and financiers will deal with either of us - but prefer BOTH." "About five years ago I was unable to open an account with Farmers without my husband signing a consent form. At the time I was receiving Family Support and a small wage. It was insulting."
Leadership
Women's participation in national leadership roles on producer boards was also raised. In general, respondents thought that low participation was a mixture of "old boys networks" operating, women not putting themselves forward, and the family focus of many women's lives. Some commented on men's attitudes as a key barrier, and the need for women to work hard to be recognised. The question generated some of the most comments, as did the one asking for suggestions for changing the situation.
Suggestions included:
- greater education and encouragement;
- changes coming from younger generation;
- recognition of women's work such as childrearing
- greater income to employ farmhand (and therefore provide options for women);
- greater acceptance of "image of house-husband",
- training opportunities for women,
- provision of childcare facilities.
2.2.3 RURAL BUSINESS WOMEN
While generally women in paid employment tend to be employees, rural women are more likely to be self-employed (or employers) either as farm business owners or partners., or as general business owners or partners.
Brian Pomeroy's (1993) Profile and Comparison of Rural Manufacturing and Farming in New Zealand (MAF Policy Technical Paper 93/13) provided information on the ownership and decision-making of women from 30 case studies of farm and rural businesses. Women were partial or co-proprietors in 60% of the factories and 76% of the farm businesses. Of the women proprietors, 78% of the manufacturers and 54% of the farmers have an active role in the business (including activities such as office administration, accounts, market research, production, hiring of staff sales, purchases, design, management of some operations and staff. catering). On average the women proprietors worked fewer hours at the business than their male partners.
As a crude measure of the extent to which women were truly involved in controlling the business as opposed to working for it or being a non-participating partner, five parameters were studied the woman was nominated as - a major business advisor; nominated as a major financial advisor; was frequently involvement in formal and informal business meetings; approved and signed business cheques; was involved in setting prices. On this basis 72% of the women manufacturers were actively involved in power sharing compared with 46% of women farmers, while a further 9% of women manufacturers and 31% of women farmers regularly attended frequent business meetings.
2.2.4 OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS TO WOMEN'S PARTICIPATION IN THE RURAL ECONOMY
One of the clear themes which emerged from the second study carried out by Mary-Jane Rivers and others (in press) was the increase in diversity in the lives of rural women. For example, rural living is no longer limited to farming, and living on a farm is no longer necessarily farming. Patterns of land use are changing, as are the relative contributions of horticultural and agricultural products to New Zealand's export earnings. The roles of women in rural areas are multiplying, as economic and policy changes impact on rural economies, services and lifestyles.
There are both push and pull factors involved with the changes in rural women's lives, In some cases rural women are diversifying and moving into business for themselves because the economic changes of the last few years have left them with few options. In other cases women have actively sought changes in their lifestyle. While we can speculate that women are actively enjoying the new-found freedom and sense of achievement involved in establishing a small business or becoming self employed, we do not know for certain. The reasons why women continue to run their small business or stay self-employed, and their experiences of the new lifestyle, need to be examined further.
While there is certainly more diversity in rural living in terms of land use, gender roles, employment patterns and the demographics of rural populations, rural women have also had to become more focused. In some ways life is more restrictive for rural women now, as the pressures of rural living have mounted. People, and women in particular, are increasingly working off the farm, living with farmers rather than farming themselves. If both partners are farmers, however, women are far more likely to be involved in the physical aspects of farm work.
We know that farm women are now filling up to five roles, rather than the three of earlier years. Women are adding physical farm work and farm management to the already demanding schedule of domestic work, community work and family work. We do not know if all rural women are experiencing an increase in the demands on their time and energy.
Women and power
As a result of some of these changes, women have increased financial clout in rural areas. This increased financial power, however, appears to be unacknowledged. Service agents are still asking to speak to the men on farms, or addressing women in a patronising manner. Given the voice women increasingly have in the decision making processes on farms, the increased likelihood that women themselves are running and managing the farm, and their individual wealth and knowledge, this is a particularly outdated approach.
Another clear message from the study is that women outside of mainstream decision-making processes have a difficult time entering the public arena. The tendency of boards to use informal selection processes ensures that very few women manage to secure positions.
The women in Southland, and women who are District Councillors or on producer boards, however, made very similar comments in terms of the real contribution women can make. Women have the ability to think strategically, to be more consultative than most men, they are open thinkers but able to be very focused when need be, and are determined and persistent. In a constantly changing world these skills are and will be needed more than ever before. Women are also, on the whole, more concerned with environmental and social issues than men are. These concerns will be increasingly important given the attention now paid to indigenous people's rights and sustainable development.
Women and support Networks
As the section on Southland showed, there is real, tangible value in developing low-key, long term networks of support. Southland women are comparatively well-represented on local government and producer boards, have aver, high percentage of women in Kellog's Leadership courses, and rural women suffer comparatively little isolation. The Southland WAg and REAP networks appear local and spontaneous. The network has also, however, been carefully considered, co-ordinated and developed. Women have been supported after moving into the area, during the economic downturn, and women have been kept informed of opportunities for further training and education.
Enabling positive change
In short, rural women are now subject to greater degrees of stress. At the same time there are more opportunities available and women have a broader skill base on which to build. There are, however, only a few simple steps needed in order to enable women to effectively use their skills, and to reduce some of the stress associated with having to cope with diversification and a rapidly changing rural environment.
As a first step, women's lives need to be acknowledged. For example, maps of rural areas that show farm occupants often list the oldest resident male. If these maps show, as the WAg and REAP maps do, the names of both partners on farms and the names and ages of any children, this information can then be incorporated into planning processes. The information would clearly be of value to service agents. Knowing the family situations of farms would also mean that meetings could he scheduled for times when men and women could attend. Simple changes such as this not only acknowledge the reality of women's lives, but can make an enormous difference to the ability of women to contribute.
Another important factor is the availability of affordable, quality, after-school childcare. Making childcare available generates employment both directly (through the care givers) and indirectly, as women have a greater opportunity to contribute without having to juggle family responsibilities for a precious few hours each day.
The third important step is supporting women on to formal decision making bodies. Given their special skills, often learnt as a result of having to juggle the four or five different roles common to rural and farm women, women can make valuable contributions to such bodies. They can also, after they are in a secure position, start to help other women to join the male dominated ranks of producer hoards and local and central government.
At the same time, however, the community based work carried out by women in their day to day lives needs to be recognised as important Women carry out much of the unacknowledged work that enables communities to survive. The work done needs to be supported in such a way that networks can be formed, and different networks tied together and co-ordinated locally and nationally. When this happens, the issues, experiences, wisdom and skills of women can be shared, and incorporated into decision-making processes. Regional and national acknowledgement and support of rural women's networks such as the WAg network in Southland is needed for balanced input into decision-making and for local work to be counted. National meetings such as the Paddocks-to-Parliament Conference is one way. There are many others.
One of the more surprising findings of this study was the continuing battle against gender stereotypes. The almost steadfast refusal of rural newspapers, like Straight Furrow to represent the reality of rural women's lives is both indicative of and condoning of some very outdated ideas. Reading Straight Furrow and Barbed Wire is almost like reading about two very different worlds, rather than two reports of life in the rural sector. Real progress may well have been made when rural media sources, such as Straight Furrow, run stories and articles similar in scope to those appearing in Barbed Wire.
Contact for Enquiries
Rural Affairs Coordinator
Sector Performance Policy
MAF Policy
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
PO Box 2526
Wellington
NEW ZEALAND
Phone: +64 4 894 0675
Fax: +64 4 4 894 0745
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