- Categorisation of organisms from comprehensive pest lists.
- Assessment of the effectiveness of border strategies at modifying aircraft passenger behaviour.
- Development of a diagnostic key for Tortricidae.
- Monitoring the effectiveness of pest plant control in New Zealand.
- Cost benefit analysis procedures to be applied to unwanted organisms or pest responses.
5. Maintaining horticultural security
5.1 MHS 300
Programme Title: |
Categorisation of organisms from comprehensive pest lists. |
| Programme Leader: | Dr Richard Baker |
| Institution: | AgriQuality New Zealand |
Goal and context of project
To deliver, using MAFRA Standard 155.01.02, the categorisation of organisms appearing on pest lists already prepared to MAFRA Standard 155.01.03, so that these can be used in import health standards. The pest categorisation provides a second step in the pest risk assessment process (the pest list being the first). Using the pest categorisations it is possible to readily distinguish those pests for which a complete PRA is justified. For the vast majority of pests listed the pest categorisation enables a final classification to be made. Apart from the actual categorisation NZPPC has assisted in the development of the process for categorisation. It has also been a supplier of pest lists on a contractual basis to MAFRA for several years.
Methodology
A total of 82 files of organisms for categorisation were received from the MAF. On receipt of the files specialists in entomology, nematology, plant pathology and virology used the following methodology:
- lists of pests allocated to the relevant specialist for action
- each pest name was checked for spelling errors and synonyms, hosts, distribution, climate preferences, and any other relevant biological and economic data using the most up-to-date scientific references; wherever possible the reference given with the pest list was checked also
- any errors to the organism name (i.e., spelling errors or synonyms) were referred back to the client and work suspended on that organism until the correct name had been registered in the client’s database
- other errors were altered directly on the WordPerfect file of the project
- when a WordPerfect file had been completed the forms were copied. Both the electronic version and double-sided hard copies were sent to the client.
Results
A total of 82 files, listing 3533 organisms for categorisation, were received. Pest categorisation of all of the organisms in these files was completed by 12 July 1999.
5.2 MHS 301
Programme Title: |
Assessment of the effectiveness of border strategies at modifying aircraft passenger |
| Programme Leader: | Dr Ganesh Rauniyar |
| Institution: | Massey University |
Summary
This programme aimed to minimise biosecurity risk to New Zealand’s agricultural, horticultural and forestry industries and native forests from adverse effects of new introductions of pests and diseases, by identifying ways in which the behaviour of arriving international passengers may be influenced by effective border strategies.
A four-step procedure was employed in the study: current New Zealand literature was reviewed; a behavioural study was conducted; face-to-face interviews with 853 arriving passengers at Auckland Wellington and Christchurch airports were conducted; and travel agents, inbound tour operators and senior airline officers were interviewed. Additional face-to-face interviews were conducted with airline staff and in-flight services crewmembers, travel agents and the Chief Executive Officer of the Travel Agents’ Association of New Zealand (TAANZ) and Inbound Tour Operators’ Council of New Zealand (ITOC).
The results suggest that awareness of passengers through education using a multitude of strategies is the key to success in minimising biosecurity risk to New Zealand’s environment and primary production industries. Other than the quarantine detection dogs (QDDs) and x-ray machines, current border strategies for increasing awareness of passengers are not particularly effective. First time travellers, younger and older travellers and travellers with language problems are most likely to be less aware of quarantine declaration requirements. The study concludes that the requirement that every passenger arriving in New Zealand goes through the biosecurity area is a unique strength and causes no major discomfort for passengers. Improvements in strategies based on close co-ordination with all stakeholders will be critical in further minimising biosecurity risks.
Additional strategies in the form of regular documentation and update of passenger profiles, provision of hand-on training to quarantine staff from high risk countries (South Pacific and South East Asia), regulatory requirement for airlines to screen multilingual quarantine video tapes and announce quarantine declaration requirements on public announcement system, instant fines for offenders, multilingual information in seat pockets in the aircrafts, requiring airlines to effectively inform passengers at the overseas check-in counters and continued education of biosecurity issues in New Zealand schools will be effective in the national interest.
Objective 1: Factors influencing behaviour of international passengers
Research Leader: Dr Carolyn Whyte
Objective 2: Impact assessment of current border strategies
Research Leader: Dr Ganesh Rauniyar and Dr Alan Winton
Objective 3: Additional strategies influencing passenger behaviour
Research Leader: Dr Ganesh Rauniyar and J Cheyne
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Background
The goal of this project was to minimise biosecurity risk to New Zealand’s agricultural, horticultural and forestry industries and native forests from adverse effects of new introductions of pests and diseases, by identifying ways in which the behaviour of arriving international passengers may be influenced by effective border strategies.
The growth in the tourism industry has exposed the New Zealand environment and primary production industries to an increased level of biosecurity risk. Although the potential sources of biosecurity risk to agriculture, horticulture, fisheries and forestry industry are many, the arrival of pests and diseases in items carried by international passengers arriving into New Zealand has been identified as an important one. The understanding of and compliance with New Zealand’s quarantine regulations by arriving passengers is a crucial factor in protecting the country’s environment and primary industries. The research was undertaken to (a) identify factors influencing behaviour of arriving international passengers; (b) assess the impact of current border strategies; and (c) identify factors influencing passenger behaviour.
Approach & Outcomes
A four-step procedure was employed in the study. As a first step, current New Zealand literature was reviewed and previous studies on passenger awareness of relevant biosecurity regulations and the efficacy of airport detection systems were analysed. This provided the foundation for assessing the impact of current border strategies in step two. In step two, a behavioural study was conducted at the three major international airports (Auckland, Christchurch and Wellington) and on flights bound for New Zealand. In step three, face-to-face interviews with 853 arriving passengers at the three airports were conducted. In step four, 37 travel agents, 28 inbound tour operators and five senior airline officers were interviewed. Additional face-to-face interviews were conducted with airline staff and in-flight services crewmembers, travel agents and the Chief Executive Officer of the Travel Agents’ Association of New Zealand (TAANZ) and Inbound Tour Operators’ Council of New Zealand (ITOC).
The discrepancy between reported behaviours and what actually occurs can be quite large and various procedures may not be effective although they have the potential to be so. It may be that they need to be presented differently to have more potent effects, particularly in the case of amnesty bins and inflight videotapes. Substantial knowledge gaps exist in passengers’ awareness of New Zealand’s quarantine declaration requirements and it indicates that the information sources are not fully effective in curtailing containing biosecurity risk. The requirement that every passenger arriving in New Zealand goes through the biosecurity area causes no major discomfort for passengers. This provision has facilitated MAF Quarantine Service (MQS) in undertaking its functions more effectively in the national interest. Slippage of biosecurity risk items is lower not least because all passengers have their declaration forms checked personally by quarantine staff.
The border strategies adopted by MQS have had mixed results in recent years. The most effective strategies in influencing passenger behaviour, other than a bench search, have been x-ray machines, quarantine detection dogs (QDDs) and the declaration forms. The impact of in-flight quarantine video, amnesty bins, loudspeaker announcements in the aircraft and at the airports, display cabinets at the airports, multilingual signs and warnings posted in the baggage claim area has been relatively less effective. The lower effectiveness of measures other than QDDs and x-ray machines and declaration forms stems from various causes. The airlines do not have a coherent policy towards screening videotapes. There is also an inherent perception in the travel industry that disseminating quarantine information is solely the responsibility of MQS and the New Zealand Government, and not an obligation for travel agents, tour operators or airlines.
Additional strategies in the form of
- regular documentation and update of passenger profiles,
- provision of hand-on training to quarantine staff from high risk countries (South Pacific and South East Asia),
- regulatory requirement for airlines to screen quarantine video tapes and announce quarantine declaration requirements on public announcement system,
- instant fines for offenders,
- requiring airlines to inform passengers effectively at the overseas check-in counters
- continued education of biosecurity issues in New Zealand schools
are likely to contribute to protection of New Zealand’s environment and primary industries. The co-operation of all stakeholders - passengers, travel industry, airport companies and customs will be vital in the success of strategies aimed at minimising biosecurity risk.
Publications
Rauniyar, G.P., Winton, A.S.W., Whyte, C.F. and Cheyne, J.M. (1999). Assessment of the effectiveness of border strategies at modifying aircraft passenger behaviour. Final report MHS 301 to MAF Policy, Massey University.
5.3 MHS 304
Programme Title: |
Keys for aphid identification: Part III Immatures and tree aphids. |
| Programme Leader: | Dr David Teulon |
| Institution: | Crop & Food Research |
Summary
This programme aimed to develop diagnostic tools for identification of aphids in New Zealand. In the main, the purpose in developing a more “simple” approach to the identification arises from the need to be able to readily distinguish new aphid species invading New Zealand from those already established. In the first two years of the three year programme, multiple entry keys for selected winged and wingless aphids of major agricultural and horticultural crops in New Zealand were developed. In addition, in the second year, molecular diagnostic techniques for the identification of immature aphids were examined.
Initially, approximately 80 common aphid species found in New Zealand were included in the multiple entry key for selected winged aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae). In the third year, the key was expanded to include approximately 115 aphids species, specifically a number of tree aphids.
Similarly, approximately 60 aphid species found on economically imported crops, as well as 50 species not found in New Zealand (but considered to be of quarantine importance), were initially included in the multiple entry key for apterous aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae). In the third year, the key was expanded to include approximately 90 aphid species found on economically important crops and trees as well as at least 70 species not found in New Zealand but considered to be of quarantine importance.
Initially, PCR primers were created to distinguish New Zealand populations of two pest species Acyrthosiphum kondoi and Aulocorthum solani. Ultimately, DNA sequence information was gathered from seven species of the Acyrthosiphum/Aulocorthum group of aphids. In addition, sequencing of ribosomal DNA fragments from several geographically separated populations of four species revealed no intra-specific sequence variation.
Objective 1: Molecular Diagnostics - Immature Aphids
Research Leader: Dr John Marshall
Objective 2: Tree Aphid Key
Research Leader: Dr David Teulon
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Background
The goal of this project was to develop diagnostic tools for identification of aphids in New Zealand. The project is the last of a series of MAF Policy funded projects that aimed to develop multiple entry keys.
About 120 aphid species have been recorded in New Zealand. The vast majority of these are considered to be introductions and many are pests of economic importance; a number are important vectors of plant viruses. The development of multiple entry keys is an attempt to simplify the identification of winged adult female aphids and apterous (wingless) adult aphids in New Zealand. In the main, the purpose in developing a more “simple” approach to the identification arises from the need to be able to readily distinguish new aphid species invading New Zealand from those already established.
In addition, the examination of molecular diagnostic techniques for the identification of immature aphids has confirmed the potential of such techniques for differentiating aphid species.
Approach & Outcomes
Objective 1.
Genomic DNA was extracted from multiple and single aphids. DNA fragments from the mitochondrial and nuclear (ribosomal fragment) genome from these preparations were amplified by PCR. The fragments were sequenced and aligned. The sequences were compared and potentially species-specific PCR primers designed, based upon sequence differences.
Genomic DNA was easily extracted from the Acyrthosiphon/Aulocorthum group of aphids. Mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA fragments were successfully amplified from the genomic DNA preparations, including those from single aphids. DNA sequence information was gathered from the PCR fragments. Successful PCR and sequencing of the ribosomal DNA fragment required significant effort and changes to the researchers’ standard PCR techniques. Potentially species-specific PCR primers were designed based on these sequences with concentration on the ribosomal sequences. Varying species-specificities have been found in the first two groups of primers designed from the ribosomal fragment. No DNA sequence variation was detected between aphids from widely separated populations of four aphid species.
Objective 2.
Methods included the selection of winged and wingless aphid species for inclusion in the key, selection of simple key characters for discrimination of aphid species and construction of discriminating matrices as the main part of the key. Finally the tree aphid key was integrated with aphid keys developed in years one and two.
An illustrated multiple-entry key for winged aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae), including tree aphids, in New Zealand was developed. Approximately 115 aphid species found in New Zealand are included. A separate illustrated key to wingless aphids in New Zealand, as well as aphids of potential quarantine importance, was developed. This key included economically important aphids from cereal and forage crops, vegetable crops, fruit crops, flowers, forest and ornamental trees. It included approximately 90 recorded from New Zealand and 70 not recorded from New Zealand. Several new crops have been added to this key. For both keys, nine simple characters in discriminating matrices are used for the identification of most aphid species. More specific characters were provided where necessary. Indexes to aphid species have been included.
Publications
Teulon, D.A.J., Eastop, V.F. and Stufkens, M.A.W. 1997. Multiple-entry key for apterous aphids of economic importance in New Zealand. Report prepared for MAF Policy.
Teulon, D.A.J. 1998. Multiple-entry key for selected winged aphids in New Zealand. Report No. 525 prepared for MAF Policy
Bulman, S. 1999. Applying molecular diagnostics to aphids. Report No. 613 prepared for MAF Policy.
Teulon, D.A.J., Eastop, V.F., Stufkens, M.A.W. and Harcourts, S.J. 1999. Illustrated multiple-entry key for apterous aphids of economic importance in New Zealand. Report No. 614 prepared for MAF Policy.
Teulon, D.A.J. 1999. Illustrated multiple-entry key for winged aphids in New Zealand. Report No. 614 prepared for MAF Policy.
5.5 MHS 307
Programme Title: |
Development of a diagnostic key for Tortricidae. |
| Programme Leader: | Peter Holder |
| Institution: | National Plant Pest Reference Laboratory |
Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.
5.6 MHS 308
Programme Title: |
Monitoring the effectiveness of pest plant control in New Zealand. |
| Programme Leader: | Dr Ross Cullen |
| Institution: | Lincoln University |
Summary
This programme aimed to identify and evaluate the range of monitoring methodologies suitable for pest plant control programmes in New Zealand. The project was undertaken by means of a literature review to identify the features, limitations, etc of plant pest monitoring programmes carried out in New Zealand and internationally. Interviews with the managers of pest plant monitoring programmes in selected regional councils and other organizations were conducted to discuss the range of practices used in New Zealand, the manner in which they are used and the advantages and disadvantages of them. A postal survey was then conducted amongst other plant pest monitoring practitioners in order to provide a comprehensive data set on current practice in New Zealand. The information obtained by these means was evaluated according to a number of criteria.
Four broad approaches to monitoring the effectiveness of plant pest control programmes were identified from the literature and the situations in which they should be employed were discussed. However, it was found that the specific methods for monitoring depend on the objectives of monitoring the nature of the pest problem and the monitoring budget. A “recipe book” for plant pest monitoring was not possible therefore, although a number of examples of monitoring methods relevant to each of the four general approaches were discussed.
Objective 1: Collect information on current monitoring practices
Objective 2: Review the literature on monitoring methodologies
Objective 3: Evaluate methodologies for their New Zealand applicability.
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Background
The goal of this project was to identify and evaluate the range of monitoring methodologies suitable for pest plant control programmes in New Zealand.
In order to fulfil its obligations under the Biosecurity Act, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry requires accurate monitoring data from regional councils on plant pest management. These reports must provide valid representative data on the progress made by regional councils and unitary authorities on the efficacy of their plant pest control operations.
To facilitate this MAF wished to provide pest managers with information on the range of monitoring methodologies suitable for plant pest control programmes and on the evaluation of current plant pest control monitoring practices in New Zealand with respect to their consistency with effective pest management principles. In the absence of appropriate evaluation tools it is not possible to determine whether progress on plant pest control is occurring. Funders of pest control will have little indication of how well goals and objectives are being met with available resources.
Approach & Outcomes
Information on monitoring the effectiveness of plant pests control, both in New Zealand and overseas, was obtained and analysed, to assist MAF in providing advice to regional councils which are obliged to undertake such monitoring to fulfil their obligations under the Biosecurity Act 1993. The information was obtained from published sources, by means of personal interviews and a postal survey of New Zealand plant pest managers.
The study identified four approaches to plant pest monitoring and the circumstances under which each is appropriate. Under each of those approaches, a large number of individual monitoring methods may be employed and the selection of method will depend on the nature of the problem, its importance and the budget available for monitoring.
The four main approaches include:
Performance monitoring which attempts to answer the question “to what extent have objectives been met?” is of particular importance, both in meeting legislative requirements and in management decision making. However, there are few examples in the international literature and even fewer in the New Zealand experience, at least in part because of the difficulty of undertaking this type of monitoring. For performance monitoring to be feasible further development and refinement of performance indicators is required. The Ministry for the Environment environmental performance indicators programme provides an opportunity for councils and others to work together to develop indicators suitable for performance monitoring in New Zealand.
Operational monitoring is the approach most frequently undertaken in New Zealand. It is used to evaluate the success of control programmes in terms of meeting pest targets and the effectiveness of control techniques. The majority of pest managers from regional councils consider that the information of this sort, which they presently collect, does not meet their monitoring needs. Although the effectiveness of control programmes on the pest (or pests) is relevant, ultimately they must show how well they are protecting resources from pests not merely that they are killing pests. This can be achieved only by effective performance monitoring.
Surveillance monitoring assists in managing the risk represented by a plant species, by providing information on its current distribution. In New Zealand the inspection of nurseries or distribution channels is a widely endorsed practice that is used for limiting the spread of pests into new areas. If surveillance monitoring is to be applied more widely in New Zealand (e.g. property inspections, roadside or hinterland surveys) two issues must be addressed.
- Species, which pose potential risks, must be ranked in importance since regional councils do not have the resources required to monitor all species on the national surveillance list. The risk of invasion by new plant pests would be minimised by monitoring those species ranked as most “risky”.
- It is necessary to determine when is it economically optimal (i.e. the point at which the total costs of monitoring, control and damage inflicted by the pest are lowest) for species on the list to be controlled.
Effectiveness monitoring techniques include social cost benefit analysis, cost minimisation analysis, cost effectiveness analysis and cost utility analysis. These have rarely been used in New Zealand although the study concluded that cost utility analysis has considerable potential for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of plant pest control programs. Before the technique can be widely applied further work is needed to; (a) define utility scoring systems and (b) understand the relationship between plant pest control and recovery in protected species.
Publications
Fairburn, Geoff; Greer, Glen; and Cullen, Ross. (1999) Monitoring the Effectiveness of Plant Pest Control in New Zealand. Unpublished report to MAF.
5.7 POH 030
Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.
5.8 POH 040
Programme Title: |
Integrating considerations of risks to indigenous flora and fauna into biosecurity risk management decisions at the border. |
| Programme Leader: | Dr Barbara Barratt |
| Institution: | AgResearch, Invermay |
This project was not completed during 1998/99, additional work is being undertaken during the 1999/2000 financial year. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.
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