4. Facilitating Resource Management

4.1 FRM 401: Nose ringing of sows

Programme Title: Nose ringing of sows
Programme Leader: Laura Jacobson and Neville Gregory
Institution: AgResearch Ltd

Summary

Nose ringing is an unpleasant task in outdoor pig farming. This project aimed to design alternative rings that would reduce the need to replace nose rings in outdoor farmed pigs, and to reduce the numbers of rings used in the same animal. Three alternative designs were developed from assessing the advantages and disadvantages of currently used nose rings. Two of these alternative designs were modifications of commercially available snout rim boss clips: stainless steel nuts were added to improve strength, and; a short piece of chain between two clips was added to reduce attempts at digging with the flat of the snout after ringing. The third design was a new septum ring made of plastic, with features aimed to improve action and persistence: non-rotating; with a thin, coated piercing pin; for installation above the rostral bone. Designs were refined using pig heads collected from a local abattoir. The designs were then field tested on 9 commercial outdoor pig farms.

Clips and chains were the most difficult of the test designs to install (P<0.001), although 74 percent of the plastic ring installations were described as more difficult than their normal system. Most farmers found it impractical to install the plastic septum rings behind the rostral bone. Farmers most common criticism of the plastic rings were that they were to flexible, difficult to line up and lock during installation, and were to large for small pigs once in situ. Pigs were most distressed after application of the clip designs than with the plastic rings (P<0.001). Plastic rings were also more effective in preventing pasture damage than the clip designs (P<0.001). Farmers thought clips and chains delayed snout healing (about 3 weeks) more than plastic rings (1.4 weeks; P<0.001). Plastic rings were more likely to be in situ at the end of the study (P<0.001). Overall, the modifications to the boss clips did not improve their persistence in the snout. Reasons for this are discussed in the report, and a new nose clip design proposed. Welfare and legislation around nose ringing are discussed in the report, and alternatives to nose ringing are examined. A design for a non-piercing ring is proposed.

Background

The goal of the project was to design alternative nose rings that reduce the need for replacing nose rings in outdoor-farmed pigs and to reduce the number of rings used in the same animal.

Nose ringing of pigs is an unpleasant procedure for both pig and farmer. However, nose ringing serves an essential purpose in outdoor pig farms - mainly the reduction of damage to pasture. There are two types of nose ring commonly in use now: clips through the top rim of the snout ("boss clips" and home-made "wire twists"), and metal rings through the septum of the snout. All are reasonably effective against digging for a period after insertion, although both have problems with persistence in the snout - the least persistent being those that go through the rim of the snout. This can lead to the use of multiple clips, or repetitive installations. The main purpose of the present study was to address problems of current nose rings in new or modified designs, with the aim of developing a new rings with improved persistence, reducing the need for multiple or repeated applications. The new ring would ideally also be no more difficult to install than current systems; inexpensive and; effective against digging.

Approach & Outcomes

Failures and advantages of currently used rings were assessed. On the basis of these features, three alternative nose rings were designed. Two of the alternative designs were modifications of the commercially available snout rim boss clips (addition of stainless steel nuts to improve strength, and the addition of a piece of chain between two clips to reduce attempts at digging with the flat of the snout after ringing). A third design was a new septum ring made of plastic, with features aimed to improve action and persistence (non-rotating, with a thin, coated piercing pin, for installation above the rostral bone). Rationales behind each of the designs are outlined in the report. Designs were refined using the heads of dead pigs collected from a local abattoir. Once finalised, commercial outdoor pig farms were approached to evaluate the new designs. Nine farms took take in the study. A total of 130 plastic septum rings, 80 sets of clips and nuts, and 80 sets of clips and chains were distributed to farmers, along with instructions for use and questionnaires. Responses were analysed using pairwise Fishers Extact test of contingency tables and analysis of variance.

Eight clips and chains were trialled, 14 clips and nuts and 58 plastic septum rings. All of the designs were difficult to install, with clips and chains reported as the most difficult (P<0.001). With the plastic rings, 74 percent of installations were described as more difficult than their normal system and 26 percent were no more difficult than the standard ring. The most common complaints about plastic rings was that they were too flexible, difficult to line up and lock during installation, and too large for small pigs after installation. Pigs were more distressed after application of the clip designs than with the plastic ring (P<0.001). Plastic rings were also more effective in preventing pasture damage than the clip designs (P<0.001). Farmers thought clips and chains took longer to heal (about 3 weeks) than plastic septum rings (1.4 weeks; P<0.001). The modifications to the boss clips did not improve their persistence in the snout. Reasons for this and suggestions for further developments are made in the report. A new nose clip design that should overcome many of the discovered problems was proposed. Farmers found attempting to install the plastic rings above the rostral bone to be impractical, and instead tended to install them in the same way they would a standard metal septum ring. When used this way, they proved as effective at preventing digging as normal metal rings. Farmers were asked if the most common complaints with the ring were rectified, would they buy them at this price. One said yes, two wanted to re-evaluate the rings before committing, and 6 said no. Welfare and legislation around nose ringing are discussed in the report, and alternatives to nose ringing are examined. A design for non-piercing ring is proposed.

4.2 FRM 402: East Coast Forestry Project: comparisons of alternative mechanisms

Programme Title: East Coast Forestry Project: comparisons of alternative mechanisms
Programme Leader: Dr Chris Phillips
Institution: Landcare Research

Summary

Review literature on erosion control performance by plants, to provide a methodology for evaluating tenders (proposals) to the East Coast Forestry Project.

Available literature on vegetation - slope stability relationships and plant performance for erosion control, in conjunction with a workshop, was used to formulate a methodology to evaluate project tenders in terms of their effectiveness for meeting the ECFP goal of sediment reduction.

The first 8 years of a plant treatment is the most important in terms of sediment reduction. The main performance criteria include canopy occupancy, lateral root site occupancy, root biomass, root depth, and root cross-sectional area per shear area. For sediment reduction these criteria are ranked:

canopy occupancy == lateral root site occupancy > root cross-sectional area per shear area >= root depth >> root biomass

For the broad treatment options proposed in the ECFP guidelines, ranking is as follows:

mature reversion > plantation forestry >= supplementary planting >> within-gully treatment

Background

The goal of the project is to review the literature on the erosion control performance of selected revegetation management strategies to provide a basis for objectively evaluating tenders (proposals) to the East Coast Forestry Project.

The project is being undertaken to provide a scientific basis for evaluating the erosion-control performance of different vegetation management strategies that might be proposed and considered for the East Coast Forestry Project.

Approach & Outcomes

Current and available scientific information on vegetation - slope stability relationships and plant performance for erosion control in the East Coast region was carried out. A workshop was held in March 2000 to discuss results of the review and formulate a methodology that could be used to evaluate project tenders in terms of their effectiveness for meeting the ECFP goal of sediment reduction.

A set of criteria to enable comparisons to be made of the various treatment options likely to be used for the East Coast Forestry Project was developed. Extensive local knowledge and observations made over many years of erosion processes in the East Coast and how vegetation affects these processes was used to support the recommendations. The first 8 years of a particular plant treatment is considered to be the most important in terms of sediment reduction and this time period was used to compare the treatments. The main criteria include canopy occupancy, lateral root site occupancy, root biomass, root depth, and root cross-sectional area per shear area. In terms of importance for sediment reduction these criteria are ranked:

canopy occupancy == lateral root site occupancy > root cross-sectional area per shear area >= root depth >> root biomass

In terms of the broad treatment options proposed in the ECFP guidelines, their performance is ranked in the following order:

mature reversion > plantation forestry >= supplementary planting >> within-gully treatment

Using the methodology, it should be possible to make an assessment of the likelihood of success or performance of a treatment in the absence of any supportive data. In such situations, the fall-back position would be field evidence of the actual performance of such a treatment or certification of such by a certified third party such as a soil conservator or forestry consultant.

The review highlighted that little is known about the below-ground attributes of many plants in New Zealand. Data exist for only a few species and for a few sites. We have used canopy growth and the concept of canopy occupancy as a surrogate for erosion control or sediment reduction effectiveness and believe that this parameter needs to be collected for a range of species and sites across the East Coast. This information should be geo-referenced on a GIS database so that future age-class-performance information can be collected for these stands and any new stands should be similarly collated.

Publications

Phillips, C.J., Marden, M., Miller, D., (2000): Review of Plant Performance for Erosion Control in the East Coast Region. Landcare Research contract report LC9900/111 for MAF Policy (unpublished).

4.3 FRM 403: Out of season extensive lamb production systems

Programme Title: Out of season extensive lamb production systems
Programme Leader: Dr Mark Fisher
Institution: AgResearch

Summary

Though no dedicated studies of animal welfare in out-of-season lambing flocks were found, analysis of the productive data suggests that welfare is not unduly compromised and may in fact be enhanced. However, the possible impact of low birth weights on lamb survival, particular in prolific sheep breeds, should be kept in mind.

Background

To assess the consequences of mating, pregnancy, lambing, lactation and finishing in seasons outside of the traditional autumn mating and spring lambing farm system.

Pastoral sheep production is typically determined by the pattern of grass growth, and most lambs are slaughtered during a limited period of the year. This pattern tends to limit economic efficiency, reduce processor-operating efficiency and limit year-round chilled meat-marketing opportunities. To overcome this, a proportion of farmers in regions characterised by relatively mild winters, are lambing prior to the traditional spring lambing period.

Approach & Outcomes

A review of the scientific literature was undertaken to consider the positive and negative aspects of the emerging out-of-season lamb production systems on animal well being. It addressed mating, pregnancy, lambing, lactation and stock finishing with the additional aim of identifying those aspects likely to require the support of future research and development.

Ewes giving birth in autumn and winter tend to have fewer lambs than their spring born counterparts. The birth weights of those lambs are significantly lighter. Despite these differences, animal welfare does not appear to be compromised by birth during autumn or winter. Farm management skills need to be optimal though to avoid underfeeding during periods of slow grass growth. In regions with mild winters, subsequent lamb health and growth may be enhanced since summer feed deficit and risk of parasitic and fungal diseases in autumn tend to be avoided.

Publications

The findings of this study, and an earlier Operational Research project (Welfare Implications of Easycare Lambing June 1997) have been published:

Fisher, M. (2001) Lambing management in New Zealand: ethics and welfare considerations. Surveillance 28 (3), 16-17

4.4 FRM 404: Disbudding & dehorning

Programme Title: Disbudding & dehorning
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

4.5 FRM 405: Animal welfare on organic dairy farms in New Zealand

Programme Title: Animal welfare on organic dairy farms in New Zealand
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

4.6 FRM 407: Animal numbers

Programme Title: Animal numbers
Programme Leader: Professor J Marbrook
Institution: Private Consultant

Summary

  1. As far as can be ascertained, the criteria for obtaining AEC approvals does not differ to any great extent from those adopted internationally and NZ is not inconsistent with world trends. The definition of `Animal' is adequate and need not be changed. A way should be found to indicate that manipulations on early embryos and fertilised eggs should be regarded as `manipulations on animals', if what is done with the eggs/embryos may possibly have an effect on adult animals (e.g. in transgenesis).
  2. Considering the way in which statistics have been gathered over the last 2-3 years, there are no good reasons why it should be changed at this time. The main reason for collecting statistics is to detect trends in animal use and for this, it is important that the methodology is kept constant. If the statistics ceased to be collected in NZ, this would be against world trends.
  3. Timing. If possible, a way should be found to continue the pre-2000 method of collecting animal use data this year (2000) and beyond. The yearly statistics should be based on the animals used in protocols that terminate in the year in question. Should this not be possible, the statistics will be of limited value from 1998 to 2002.
  4. If good reasons do emerge, in future discussions, for changing the method of collection of data in any way, any new system should overlap with the present system so that maximum value is obtained from the statistics of 1998 and later.
  5. A discussion of the reason for collecting data should be given some priority by NAEAC, to provide a rational basis for the obtaining of the statistical data. The reason for collecting data will influence the way in which it is collected. There is no point in spending vast sums and going to enormous trouble to obtain extremely precise statistics if the reason for collection would require data of minimal accuracy. NAEAC should take ownership of not only the collection but also the results of the data statistics so that it is clear and a matter of policy, why the statistics of animal usage are collected. There are few accurate statements that can be derived from the statistics collected up to this time. The current system needs to be run to at least 2003 to establish any patterns in the trends in animal use.
  6. One of the aspects of advice to be given to the Minister in the future may be the financial cost benefit of statistics gathering. There seems to be little data on this matter. NAEAC should establish whether there is other advice that the Minister might seek so that available data is adequate.
  7. To follow these recommendations it will involve making changes in the current Records and Statistics Regulations 1999.

Background

The goal of the project is to ascertain whether any changes are required to the Animal Welfare (records and Statistics) Regulations 1999.

The project would be in two parts:

  1. A review of the international literature and systems in countries that require the formal collection of statistics of animals used for experimental and other scientific purposes. The Animal Welfare Act refers to this as "research, testing and teaching".
  2. To advise whether changes are recommended need to be consistent with the Animal Welfare Act and as consistent as possible with overseas requirements/systems. Any proposals should endeavour to build on the current system so as to minimise compliance costs and other impacts of change.

Approach & Outcomes

To examine approaches in New Zealand and internationally to the collection and recording of numbers of animals used in research, testing and teaching.

This involved a review of literature and systems in New Zealand and internationally, and produced a list of proposals that were consistent with the Animal Welfare Act and as consistent as possible with the overseas requirements/systems. Then MAF and the National Animal Ethics Advisory Committee need to study the implications and recommendations that this project raises.

4.7 FRM 408: Review water policies, legislation and water management issues important to MAF

Programme Title: Review water policies, legislation and water management issues important to MAF
Programme Leader: Simon Harris
Institution: Harris Consulting

Summary

  1. MAF has been considering the need for operational research in the context of water management issues. However MAF's role in respect of such a large and complex area is not well defined, and any policy initiatives and operational research need to be undertaken within a framework that outlines how MAF will engage itself in this area.
  2. Despite a number of catchments being fully or over allocated in New Zealand, there is actually surprisingly little water shortage apart from on a seasonal basis or in specific localities. The existence of short term or locality specific water shortages may be more associated with the relative inflexibility of the water management system than with an aggregate shortage of water. There is however a demand in the rural sector for greater water supplies for irrigation, as evidence by the number of resource consent applications or feasibility studies for water takes from major river systems. Even if in the short term the infrastructure costs and land use change requirements mean that uptake is slow, the long term future of agriculture lies with products produced under irrigated systems. In the short term therefore water management and allocation systems are the limiting factor in appropriate use of available resources. In the longer term the physical availability of water is a priority.
  3. The rationale for MAF Policy involvement in water management issues stems can be summarised as devolving from its interest in Sustainable Resource Development. MAF has a role because of its responsibilities, but also because it has a collection of information and expertise on the economic implications of water management issues, which is not available elsewhere.
  4. MAF's role is in Sustainable Resource Development, rather than in resource management per se. This allows it to ask questions regarding the outcomes of the management processes from a different point of view than other agencies involved in the area. The environment can be protected using a wide range of approaches, particularly in respect of the degree to which the precautionary principle is adopted. However it is a smaller set of these approaches which will maximise Sustainable Resource Development - that is maximising development while protecting the environment and resource base. MAF can therefore address the degree to which ideal SRD outcomes are being achieved, and the degree to which bottlenecks in SRD exist in respect of water management.
  5. A cursory look at the way in which the RMA has been implemented suggests that there is need for a greater variety of viewpoints, particularly in incorporating the societal viewpoint in achieving SRD outcomes. MAF has a legitimate interest in ensuring that the rural sector and its interests are represented in the debate over how the Act is implemented.
  6. Centralised resource allocation planning has been reduced to the point where now most allocation is undertaken by the market. In water use management the only planning which is undertaken is to ensure that "environment bottom lines" are not breached. Paradoxically however in water management, in the absence of central planning, there is also no market mechanism which allows water resources to flow from lower producing areas to high producing areas or for councils to make decisions in the face of competing economic demands for a resource. Even if neither market nor planned systems are perfect, a non market-non planned system is likely to lead to sub-optimal outcomes from a resource allocation point of view.
  7. A number of individuals spoken to have defined the role of the organisation as providers of information rather than advocates. However the role of MAF is wider than just providers of information, and its role will vary with the level at which decisions are made. MAF's role in facilitating information availability and dissemination is seen as very important by those involved in the industry.
  8. Eight major project areas are identified as suitable for MAF's involvement, with the immediate concerns are the issues of efficiency of water use.

Background

MAF has been considering the need for operational research in the context of water management issues. However MAF's role in respect of such a large and complex area is not well defined, and any policy initiatives and operational research need to be undertaken within a framework that outlines how MAF will engage itself in this area. As part of developing this understanding and framework, MAF is seeking some external input to scoping the issues. This report outlines the outcomes from a study on water management issues. The study's objectives were:

  • Define on a consensus basis MAF's roles and responsibilities in respect of water management.
  • Identify the water management issues, which are critical to MAF in respect of its roles and responsibilities.
  • Of these critical issues, identify those, which are of priority and need to be pursued further at this stage.
  • Provide a course of action for MAF to follow in dealing with these issues.

Approach & Outcomes

The water management area includes the use of water, and its upstream and downstream implications. This framework focuses on the rural use of water together with its upstream impacts (abstraction). The downstream impacts, particularly water quality issues are included in the framework but are not treated in any detail since there is already considerable effort in this area. This report should be viewed as a thinkpiece, since the time available was insufficient to address issues in any depth. However the major issues are covered, and it provides a framework within which these issues can be considered.

The report discusses the major issues in water management - scarcity, Sustainable Resource Development (SRD), water use efficiency, markets vs. planning, and questions of scale. The report concludes with a discussion of possible projects and priorities for MAF in the context of Sustainable Resource Development.

4.8 FRM 421: Silvicultural research in selected forest types

Programme Title: Silvicultural research in selected forest types
Programme Leader: Rob Allen
Institution: Landcare Research Ltd

Summary

This report further develops an approach to ecological site classification in a Canterbury black beech forest that we first outlined in Svavarsdóttir et al. (1999) for a Taranaki podocarp tawa forest.

Although the black beech forests are simpler in terms of canopy dominance (black beech was nearly always the only canopy tree), than the podocarp / tawa forest, there were still strong stand structure, regeneration, biodiversity, and exotic plant patterns on the property.

Woodside Forest proved a useful study site to extend the application of an ecological site classification as it represents a secondary forest largely recovering from land clearance. We did not detect the influence of current forest management on the composition and structure of individual stands.

Based on previous ecological and silvicultural research in New Zealand's indigenous forests some of the relationships found in Woodside Forest appear more general, and these have important implications for forest management. For example, that a set of fertile sites can support rapid tree growth but also present difficulties for tree establishment.

Such an approach is consistent with the view that site specific protocols are required for ecologically sensitive forest management. This contrasts in a major way with the standardised regimes widely used in exotic plantations.

Background

Landcare Research was contracted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry to develop an approach to ecological site classification that would result in management of indigenous forests on individual properties in a way that retains as full a set of forest values as possible.

The work was undertaken to demonstrate how multifaceted ecological information can be collected on individual properties and used by forest owners to develop silvicultural systems that take account of variation in structure, composition and growth of existing forest stands. The research was undertaken in a black beech forest (Woodside Forest) near Oxford, Canterbury and results were contrasted with results from previous MAF Policy funded work in Taranaki.

Approach & Outcomes

A 120ha Canterbury foothill property containing 83ha of black beech forest was selected for this study. Forty plots were randomly located using GPS throughout the black beech forest on the property. On each plot, regeneration, stand structure, tree growth, species composition, and exotic species were determined along with various site factors (e.g. soil chemistry, slope, solar radiation etc.). The forested area was mapped and physical features (e.g. altitude) determined from a GIS based on orthophotography.

Woodside Forest proved a useful study site to extend the application of an ecological site classification as it represents a secondary forest largely recovering from land clearance. Soil C:N ratio and exchangeable Ca, altitude, and distance to the forest margin were most consistently related to black beech regeneration, stand structure, tree growth, biodiversity patterns, and exotic plant species. Stand level average tree growth was usually relatively rapid on steep-sloped, sheltered sites having fertile soils, whereas seedling and sapling densities were relatively low on such sites. Individual tree growth was additionally related to individual crown dimensions and cover. We did not detect the influence of current forest management on the composition and structure of individual stands. Based on previous ecological and silvicultural research in New Zealand's indigenous forests some of the relationships found in Woodside Forest appear more general, and these have important implications for forest management. Variability on individual properties is consistent with the view that site specific protocols are required for ecologically sensitive forest management. This contrasts in a major way with the standardised regimes widely used in exotic plantations.

Further development of this approach to ecological site classification is desirable as a framework for the management of forests on individual properties. A synthesis of patterns described for Woodside Forest, in combination with a wider knowledge of ecological processes in indigenous forests, could be used to prepare more general guidelines on site classification applicable to a wide range of properties. This report on Woodside Forest has also highlighted the need to establish baselines. It will remain a challenging exercise to partition out how current and past land management are influencing a range of forest values on individual properties.

Publications

Allen, R.B., Wiser, S.K., Burrows, L.E., Brignall-Theyer, M.E. (2000): Silvicultural research in selected forest types: a black beech forest in Canterbury. Landcare Research contract report (LC0001/001) for the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.

4.9 FRM 406: A pro-active approach to gully management in the Gisborne district

Programme Title: A pro-active approach to gully management in the Gisborne district
Programme Leader: Dr Michael Marden
Institution: Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

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