1. Facilitating Market Access

1.1 FMA 160

Programme Title: Improving conditions and welfare on stock trucks
Programme Leader: Dr Lindsay Matthews
Institution: AgResearch Ltd

Summary

The aim of the study was to identify practical, alternative methods to reduce the risk of environmental stress for lambs, during long-haul transport in hot weather. The alternative strategies evaluated were focused on 1) crate design (ventilation) and 2) stocking density. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the usefulness of these strategies in minimising Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) and ammonia increases during lamb transport in summer. The THI increased when the vehicles were stationary, especially under conditions designed to emulate the enclosed deck of a cross-strait ferry. The ambient climatic conditions during the crate design comparisons were not very challenging, although there was evidence that THI was slightly lower in an older, more-open design crate. The ambient temperatures during the stocking density comparisons were challenging, and THI was significantly lower at reduced density loading.

Background

The goal of this project was to improve environmental conditions on tranporters thereby reducing the risk to animal welfare. This information will be suitable for proposing changes to Industry and NAWAC Transport Codes and in facilitating change in transport crate design and practices within the transport industry.

Animal welfare agencies have expressed concern about the welfare of livestock on transporters including inter-island ferry journeys. During our initial MAF-funded research (1999-2000), we measured environmental parameters on a number of long-haul road journeys involving sheep, cattle and deer. Measures of temperature, humidity and ammonia levels during inter-island journeys indicated that lambs in particular are at a very high risk of welfare compromise in some situations. These circumstances included travel on the ferry where mean environmental temperatures were elevated 4-6oC above ambient and relative humidities reached 90 percent. The aim of this phase of the project was to identify practical, alternative methods to reduce the risk of environmental stress for at-risk animals during long-haul transport.

Approach & Outcomes

Following consultation with industry stakeholders, it was determined to conduct controlled experiments to evaluate the potential of two alternative practices to improve environmental conditions for lambs on a transport vehicle. The alternative strategies evaluated were focussed on 1) crate design (ventilation) and 2) stocking density. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the usefulness of these strategies in minimising Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) and ammonia increases during land transport in summer. The first experiment measured the effects of crate design, and compared the newer, aluminium alloy design (3-deck truck, 4-deck trailer) with the older, more open steel design (3-deck truck, 3-deck trailer). The second experiment measure the effects of lamb stocking density on the vehicle, and compared "standard practice" stocking density (equivalent to welfare code recommendations) with "low density" loading (approx. 20 percent less).

Each experiment utilised one vehicle for each condition, and consisted of one complete journey replicated twice (on successive days). Each journey consisted of a number of stages: 1) loading; 2) road travel for 1.5 hours; 3) stationary, parked outside for 1 hour; 4) stationary, parked in a large shed for 3 hours; 5) road travel for 1.5 hours; and 6) unloading. The 1-hour period when the trucks were parked outside was designed to emulate the period of waiting at the docks prior to boarding an inter-island ferry. The 3-hour period in the shed was designed to emulate the conditions of the enclosed vehicle deck of an inter-island ferry. The temperature, humidity and ammonia concentration was measured over each journey in six pens on each vehicle. Ambient temperature and humidity were also measured.

The outcomes were:

  • Ammonia concentrations were variable and did not reach very high levels, apart from two instances (different pen locations on different days) at the standard practice stocking density Experiment 2.
  • The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) increased when the vehicles were stationary, especially under conditions designed to emulate the enclosed deck of a cross-strait ferry.
  • The ambient climatic conditions during the crate design comparisons were not very challenging, although there was evidence that THI was slightly lower in the older design crate.
  • The ambient temperatures during the stocking density comparisons were challenging, and THI was significantly lower at low density loading.
  • These results indicate that a strategy such as lowered loading density may be of considerable benefit in preventing lamb deaths during inter-island transport on very warm days. Further research is needed to identify the ambient conditions which cause dangerous increases in THI on lamb transport vehicles, and to formulate recommendations for actions (e.g. reduced stocking density) when ambient conditions are predicted to reach defined limits.

Publications

Fisher, A.D., Stewart, M., Tacon, J. and Matthews, L.R. (2001): Improving conditions and welfare on stock trucks: Evaluation of strategies to improve environmental conditions for transported lambs. Confidential Report to MAF Policy, June 2001.

1.2 FMA 161

Programme Title: Welfare Implications of Intensive Grazing Systems for Beef Production
Programme Leader: Dr Mark Fisher
Institution: AgResearch

Summary

The systems of beef production described in this study are perhaps the most welfare-friendly of any intensive system of animal production. They more closely resemble extensive farming rather than the confined, industrial farming systems more usually associated with intensive agriculture. However, like any farming system, welfare cannot be guaranteed, and ongoing consideration needs to be given to several aspects. Firstly, the requirements for shade and shelter. Secondly, the possible implications of a lack of normal behaviour (aggression between animals) in technosystem-farmed bulls. And finally, how the perception of intensive farm systems is managed.

Background

The goal of this project was to describe the characteristics of intensive beef grazing systems and their implications for the welfare of the animals.

An increasing number of beef cattle in New Zealand are being grazed in intensive systems. These systems are regarded as an efficient and profitable means of converting grass to meat, and result in markedly quieter animals. Despite their use, intensive beef grazing systems, especially technosystems, have not been well studied in this country. Not surprisingly, there are a number of claims and misconceptions associated with some of them. An example, is the belief that technosystems require strict underfeeding over winter. Furthermore, the lack of formal knowledge, as well as sharing experience and expertise, has no doubt contributed to some of the significant mortality rates reported on a few farms, albeit these references tending to be anecdotal.

Approach & Outcomes

A number of commercial farms in the North Island, each with intensive beef systems, were visited in order to describe their essential features and variations, and the experiences and thoughts of farmers. In addition, behaviour, especially aggressive interactions and time spent on various activities, as well as liveweight changes, and the incidence of disease and injuries were monitored on an intensive grazing system.

A survey of a variety of intensive systems of beef production revealed that while there were many variations, the animals were generally quieter, had better liveweight gains and these systems result in improved economic returns when compared with less intensive operations. While in some intensive systems animals had little or no access to shade and shelter, their welfare otherwise appeared acceptable with little significant disease, injury or ill-health problems attributable to intensive farming.

Day-time observation of bulls during winter and spring in a technosystem, indicated that they spent most of their time grazing (53 percent), standing (32 percent) or sitting (15 percent). While there were a small number of interactions between animals, mainly grooming, the aggressive interactions normally seem in this class of animals were absent. No significant health problems, injuries or diseases were recorded.

Publications

An article outlining the study was published in the New Zealand Farmer (Thursday, November 2, 2000). It is intended to produce a similar article for the popular farming media detailing the findings of the study.

A formal scientific publication is also anticipated.

1.3 FMA 162

Programme Title: Electric Current profiles during Livestock Stunning
Programme Leader: Neville Gregory
Institution: S.A.R.D.I.

Summary

Assessing the current profiles at slaughterlines in New Zealand, gave results of 91 percent of the current profiles being satisfactory from an animal welfare perspective. In 9 percent of the animals there was a poor initial contact, or an interrupted current flow. It was concluded that there is potential value in periodically inspecting the current profiles during electrical stunning. It helps identify potential problems in the quality of the stunning procedure.

Background

Identifying poor current delivery is especially difficult in plants using fast linespeeds or automatic stunners. On account of this, the project tried a different approach for identifying poor current application. It examined the current profile during electrical stunning. The current profile was the overall shape of the current flow that was delivered to individual animals. The aim was to use the current profile to determine whether problems occurred with current delivery (especially when stunning lambs), estimate the prevalence of any problems, and where appropriate suggest remedies.

Approach & Outcomes

The stunning current profiles were inspected at six slaughterlines in New Zealand. The profile for each animal was recorded with a laptop computer, and subsequently assigned to one of the five categories: Satisfactory, Poor initial contact, Interrupted current, Failure to maintain current, and Spiking. Ideally the current profile should be `Satisfactory'. `Poor initial current' and `Interrupted current' are potentially concerns from a welfare perspective if the animals experience a shock before it is stunned.

In general, the standard of stunning was good. Eighty five percent of the profiles were satisfactory, and 91 percent were acceptable from the welfare perspective. However, there was one plant that was not performing to the same standard as the others. It had a lower prevalence of satisfactory stunning current profiles, and a higher prevalence of poor initial contact and spiking. Problems such as these could be addressed in the following way. Poor initial contact could be reduced by studying the way the operator applied the stunning electrodes and deciding whether explaining the problem to the operator, or modifying the way he/she applies the electrodes to the animal, could correct the fault. Spiking could be avoided with additional electronic circuitry.

1.4 FMA 163

Programme Title: Short Scrotum Castration of Lambs
Programme Leader: Andy Bray
Institution: AgResearch

Summary

The main outcomes have been summarised as rankings for the three key criteria affecting acceptability of short scrotum castration: 1 = lowest, 3 = highest ranking.

The weighting attached to each of these ranks will depend on the purpose of the comparison and subjective assessments by the evaluator.

  Ram Short Scrotum Wether
Lean meat production 3 3 1
Management efficiency 1 2 3
Welfare 3 2 1
Objective 1: Incidence of Short Scrotum Castration
Research Leader: Ian Tarbottom
   
Objective 2: Economic Implications
Research Leader: Andy Bray
   
Objective 3: Consumer and Animal Ethical Implications
Research Leader: Mark Fisher

Background

The goal of this project was to provide Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries with information to develop an effective response to consumer concerns about short scrotum castration that may be needed to revise standards and recommendations in the code of welfare for sheep. Develop an understanding of the reasons for the use of short scrotum castration by farmers, and for consumer concerns; and evaluate the economic, animal welfare and human and animal ethical issues.

Approach & Outcomes

Firstly, a survey of farmers was undertaken to determine the incidence of short scrotum castration of lambs in New Zealand, and reasons why farmers use the practice. Secondly, data from published studies was used to estimate financial costs and benefits. Thirdly, the justification for castration of lambs, the harm that it may cause and benefits that it may bring was explored from an ethical viewpoint.

A survey of 400 farmers found that 45 percent of them used the short scrotum technique on 41 percent of 556,846 male lambs born in 2000. 39 percent of male lambs were left entire and 20 percent were castrated to produce wethers. The main reason for use of the short scrotum technique had a financial basis, largely associated with the efficiency of on-farm operations but including market demands for lean meat. Animal welfare issues were identified in a minority of responses as affecting the decision on whether to use the short scrotum technique or not.

A review of published research indicated that short scrotum males had similar meat producing ability to ram lambs, and better than wethers. The financial value of the extra lean meat from short scrotum males and rams relative to wethers, less feed costs, was estimated at $3 to $5 per lamb.

In practice there is likely to be little difference between short scrotum lambs and wethers in the distress when tails are docked at the same time. Later differences in welfare between ram, short scrotum and wether lambs will be minimal other than those associated with the greater dagginess of rams. Ram lambs will be able to lead the most natural life and wethers the least, with short scrotum lambs intermediate.

1.5 FMA 164

Programme Title: Chronic pain in calves
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

1.6 FMA 165

Programme Title: Alleviation of dehorning distress in calves
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

1.7 FMA 166: Defining Montreal Process Indicators for New Zealand's planted forest estate

Programme Title: Defining Montreal Process Indicators for New Zealand's planted forest estate
Programme Leader: Brian Richardson
Institution: Forest Research

Summary

The goal of the project was to analyse the extent to which New Zealand's planted forest estate can be considered to be sustainable (as prescribed in the Montreal Process) in its own right without reliance on its contribution to the natural forest estate. Data on the indicators were collected from a wide variety of sources commonly including Forest Research, other CRIs, universities, regional councils, the Ministry for the Environment, the Department of Conservation, various publications, miscellaneous web sites and through contact with many individuals. Wherever possible, data sources have been fully referenced. An interpretation of available data was provided, together with recommendations on future data collection needs where appropriate. A summary box was also included for each indicator, including an assessment of how well the indicator could be reported on.

This report presents an enormous compilation of data and represents a significant contribution to the next Montreal Process Country Report. Relatively few significant concerns were raised regarding the overall performance of plantation forest in the context of sustainability. However, the report also highlights a number of problems relating to New Zealand's future reporting capability. A high number of indicators could only be reported on using a "Case Study" or "Explanatory Narrative" approach. If no effort is made to develop national datasets for key indicators, in the future this qualitative/semi-quantitative approach will make it very difficult to establish trends over time. Also, it will not be possible to test whether apparent changes are statistically significant. To improve New Zealand's ability to report on many of the Montreal Process indicators, a national approach to data collection and storage will be necessary. Possible approaches for some specific indicators are outlined under the relevant indicators. However, a more detailed analysis to define priority indicators and procedures for data collection and reporting is recommended.

Background

To analyse the extent to which New Zealand's planted forest estate can be considered to be sustainable (as prescribed by the Montreal Process) in its own right without reliance on its contribution to the natural forest estate.

In 1997 New Zealand was able to report to some degree on 51 of the 67 Montreal Process indicators. However, there were difficulties in both gathering the required information and in assessing their relevance to New Zealand's plantation resource. The aim of the work described in this report was to address some of these difficulties in preparation for the next Country Report. Particular emphasis was placed on gathering and interpreting data for as many indicators as possible. The analysis also included information on indigenous remnants within plantation forests.

Approach & Outcomes

A standard approach was used for reporting on all indicators for Montreal Process Criteria 1-6. This included a definition of terms, an evaluation of the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) report rationale, and an interpretation of the indicator and its relevance in the context of New Zealand plantations. Data on the indicators were taken from a wide variety of sources commonly including data from Forest Research, other CRIs, universities, regional councils, the Ministry for the Environment, the Department of Conservation, various publications, and through contact with many individuals and web sites. Wherever possible, data sources have been fully referenced. In some cases cautionary statements have also been included, particularly where data are confidential and further negotiations will be required if they are to be used in the next Country Report.

An interpretation of available data was provided, together with recommendations on future data collection needs where appropriate. A summary box was also included for each indicator, containing information as to how well the indicator could be reported.

This report presents an enormous compilation of data, with some information found on almost all indicators. As such, it represents a significant contribution to the next Montreal Process Country Report. Relatively few significant concerns were raised regarding the overall performance of plantation forests in the context of sustainability. However, the report also highlights a number of problems relating to New Zealand's future reporting capability. An overall assessment was made of how well each indicator could be evaluated. Only about 24 percent of the indicators fell into the "Easy" category, the majority (64 percent) being "Difficult". Indicators in the Easy category could almost always be reported on in a quantitative manner, often at a national level. Just over half the indicators in the Difficult category had to be reported using a case study approach. In many cases the data were of high quality, but the national coverage was poor. The rest of the indicators in this category were reported on using a mixture of methods including "Quantitative", "Case Study", and "Explanatory Narrative".

The high number of indicators requiring a Case Study or Explanatory Narrative approach is a concern. If no effort is made to develop a national datasets for key indicators, in the future this qualitative/semi-quantitative approach will make it very difficult to establish trends over time. Also, it will not be possible to test whether apparent changes are statistically significant.

To improve New Zealand's ability to report on many of the Montreal Process indicators, a national approach to data collection and storage will be necessary. Possible approaches for some specific indicators are outlined under the relevant indicators. A more detailed analysis to define priority indicators and procedures for data collection and reporting is recommended.

1.8 FMA 167

Programme Title: Using life cycle analysis to compare the environmental impacts of wood products and their substitutes
Programme Leader: John Gifford
Institution: Forest Research

Summary

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a rapidly developing tool being used by many differing organisations for a wide range of purposes including improving the design of products; as a key component of eco-labelling schemes; as a basis for introducing environmental regulations; and assisting companies to demonstrate improved environmental performance over time. Although LCA has been used extensively internationally over the last 10 years, relatively few studies have been undertaken in New Zealand and, what studies have been completed, all focus on providing an inventory analysis and have not been extended to include a full impact assessment.

The literature review indicated that around 15-20 New Zealand LCA studies which related to forestry and construction materials have been completed and reported. These studies have been undertaken by Forest Research, the University of Auckland, BRANZ, the University of Canterbury and Victoria University. Not all of the studies identified are available within the public domain. Over 20 relevant studies were identified for other countries in the international literature.

Many computer databases and tools have been developed to undertake LCA. The information in databases is often country specific and can not be directly related to New Zealand. However, such data is often useful for establishing default values for inputs and outputs, when no New Zealand data is available. Many of the computer-based systems have been developed for specific applications and their data output formats are limited.

Studies undertaken to date that compare wood-based products to non-wood substitutes indicate that wood products have lower environmental impacts, though the nature and level of environmental impact is highly product specific and many country variations arise. The studies reported demonstrate that LCA needs to be carried through to the impact assessment phase to ascertain fully the environmental burden of production systems. Caution is required when comparing products - as it is imperative that similar system boundaries are being used.

Background

This study was undertaken to identify the role of life cycle assessment in quantifying the environmental impacts of producing wood products from sustainably managed forests in New Zealand and to compile relevant information that will assist in undertaking the LCA for New Zealand derived wood products.

Approach & Outcomes

The objectives of this study were to identify the role of life cycle assessment in quantifying the environmental impacts of producing wood products from sustainably managed forests in New Zealand and to compile relevant information that will assist in undertaking a LCA for New Zealand derived wood products. In addition, the literature review identifies information gaps and considers many of the important issues that need to be considered when instigating a LCA programme, particularly around the system boundaries; the nature and function of the product system(s) to be considered; and the nature of any assumptions. The research was based on a review of available literature and brief discussions with industry and other contributors to check on the availability of unpublished data.

1.9 FMA 173

Programme Title: The impact of colostrum collection on the welfare of dairy calves
Programme Leader: Dr Mark Fisher
Institution: AgResearch

Summary

While it is possible to envision the production of colostrum to satisfy both the calf and human requirements across the dairy industry as a whole, the impact of colostrum collection on calf welfare in future cannot be definitively stated. The challenge will be to develop and maintain guidelines that ensure individual farmers and suppliers of colostrum, as well as rearers, also meet the requirements of the calf. The most important of these is that the calf receives an adequate amount of colostrum as soon as possible after birth.

Background

The goal of the project was to review the effects of colostrum calf well-being, the impacts of commercial demand for the product, and assess the subsequent performance and welfare of calves receiving different levels of colostrum.

Colostrum is becoming an increasingly valued product for human medicines and dietary supplements, with significant volumes already being collected within the New Zealand dairy industry. As this trend continues, there is the potential for a conflict between the value of colostrum for sale and the needs of calves, both those reared as heifer replacements for the dairy industry, and those reared for the beef industry. Inadequate intake of colostrum is likely to affect calf mortality and subsequent performance. The general public, including New Zealand's overseas markets, may see it as significantly compromising welfare.

Approach & Outcomes

The effects of colostrum on calf well-being and the impacts of commercial demands for the product were reviewed, and the subsequent performance and welfare of calves assessed, having received different levels of colostrum after birth. The impacts of colostrum collection for human use were then interpreted in light of these results.

While calves can survive a lack of colostrum, the literature clearly shows that mortality rates are usually higher, and the incidence of disease is increased (especially in situations where exposures to causative agents are high). In addition, performance, both short and long term is impaired. Liveweight gains and even lactation and subsequent culling rates are adversely affected by insufficient colostrum after birth. Hence the absorption of a reasonable amount of good quality colostrum as soon as possible after birth is essential to the welfare of dairy calves. These trends were apparent in an experiment monitoring dairy calves reared artificially for the beef industry. A significant proportion (24 percent) had apparently not received or absorbed sufficient colostrum. These calves had lower survival rates, required more health treatments, and grew less rapidly than those receiving greater amounts. As more colostrum is diverted for human use there is the potential for the welfare of the calf to be compromised. However, since the cow produces more colostrum than is required by the calf, collection for human use need not compromise animal welfare. Furthermore, both the calf's ingestion of colostrum while with the cow, and the management of the calf immediately after it is picked up from the cow and artificial rearing commences, appear to impact on calf welfare whether or not colostrum is collected for human use.

1.10 FMA 169

Programme Title: Generic HACCP Models for Food Assurance
Programme Leader: Sandra Walker
Institution: AgriQuality

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

1.11 FMA 170

Programme Title: Facilitating market access for New Zealand apples to Australia - Quantitative PCR determination for Erwinia amylovora (Part II)
Programme Leader: John Marshall
Institution: Crop & Food (and HortResearch)

Summary

The aim of this project was to monitor population levels of Erwinia amylovora in infected fruitlets (without symptoms), and mature apples at harvest and in cool storage. This will provide quantitative information to determine whether mature fruit exported from New Zealand orchards infected with Erwinia amylovora are likely to cause outbreaks of fire blight in countries free of the disease.

Trees in an orchard not having any symptoms of fire blight were inoculated with a marked strain of Erwinia amylovora. Apples from these trees were systematically sampled and the DNA extracted from the calyx of the apples. The extracted DNA was then analysed using quantitative PCR to monitor the levels of Erwinia amylovora detected in the samples at each sampling period.

The results of the DNA analysis were analysed statistically using residual maximum likelihood methods. This analysis showed that there was a general decrease in the level of detectable Erwinia amylovora over time. This also indicated that where no Erwinia amylovora was detected this could indicate that extremely low levels to no levels of Erwinia amylovora bacteria were present.

The results presented here suggest that it is highly unlikely that discarded infested fruit will be sources of fire blight infection in apple orchards. Furthermore, there is currently no evidence in the literature to support the belief that mature export apples infested with E. amylovora can provide an inoculum source for new fire blight infections if discarded near a susceptible host.

Background

This programme will provide information, using new quantitative PCR, to address the issues raised by AQIS.

New Zealand's case for access to Australia for apples is based on research that shows that export of mature, healthy apple fruit is unlikely to be a pathway for the introduction of fire blight into Australia. The Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS) has questioned the data presented by MAF Biosecurity, which support this claim, as most of the data have been collected from orchards free of fire blight symptoms. New quantitative PCR offers an opportunity to determine efficiently and accurately the number of bacteria associated with apple fruit from infected orchard blocks, from the export apple crop in general, and from orchard blocks where buffer zones around a fire blight free designated export area may be infected.

Approach & Outcomes

Part A

Twenty Royal Gala trees in a randomised block design were used for the inoculations. Flowers were inoculated with a marked strain of E. amylovora (8865NR) that is known to be resistant to rifampcin and nalidixic acid. Individual flowers were inoculated 8 days after emergence by pipetting a 10 µl drop of a bacterial suspension onto the stigmas. Inoculated flowers were enclosed in polyethylene chambers, which were removed after 24 hours. Temperature, rainfall and humidity were monitored throughout flowering. Sampling times were immature fruitlet stage, mid season, at harvest and after cool storage.

DNA was extracted from the apple sample using a standard protocol of CTAB extraction. Quantification of E. amylovora DNA was performed on the Perkin-Elmer ABI® 7700 Sequence Detector (TaqManTM). 5 µl of DNA were used in a final PCR reaction volume of 25 µl. The thermal cycling conditions for real-time quantitative PCR were standard default machine settings. Ct values indicate the amount of DNA present in a sample with Ct = 10 indicating high levels of DNA (and so bacterial Cfus) and Ct = 40 indicating no DNA present (and so no bacterial cfus).

Part B

A newly planted apple orchard (1-year-old) was used for this study. The apple block was divided into 12 blocks. There were 20 trees per block, 60 trees per row and 4 rows per cultivar. Calyxes of 600 mature, export-quality apples (fire blight susceptible cv. Royal Gala) were inoculated with 0.1 ml of a suspension of E. amylovora containing 1.34 x 106 colony-forming units (cfu). A further 100 apples were inoculated with sterile PBS + 0.05 percent Tween 20 and used as controls. The inoculated apples were then hung in trees, secured with tape, as close as possible to blossom clusters containing open flowers. Fifty inoculated apples were dispersed throughout each block. PCRs were carried out using a Techne Genius thermocycler in 50 µl reaction volumes. Amplification involved 94oC for 20 seconds, 60 oC for 20 seconds, 72 oC for 1 minute (35 cycles).

The outcomes were:

Part A

In orchard A for the trees that have been assessed more than once, Ct values have generally increased from batches 1 to 4, with over 90 percent of the data in batch 4 having a Ct value of 40 (the maximum), and over 85 percent of the apples having a mean of 40. More than 70 percent of samples in batch 3 for this orchard had a Ct value of 40 (66 percent of apples with mean = 40), and fewer than 5 percent values of below 32. For batch 4, there were far fewer apples sampled. The lowest Ct value was 30.85 with over 95 percent of apples having a Ct value of 40. The calibration experiment indicated that Ct values of this size were associated with CFU counts of less than 1000, and in addition, samples with a Ct of 40 would be highly likely to have contained no cells at all. In contrast, at the first assessment, 95 percent of Ct values were below 36, and 50 percent below 30, with the smallest value being 9.82. This is strong evidence of a large reduction in cell counts over time.

The picture is a little different at Orchard B, where 1 percent of samples had Ct values below 30 in batch 4, and only 23 percent values of 40 (11 percent of apples with a mean of 40). Results indicate that for many trees Ct levels changed little or decreased between batch 3 and 4. Minimum Ct values in both batches were also low, below 22. Nevertheless, the majority of samples (more than 85 percent) had high Ct values of over 30, suggesting CFU counts were on the whole still quite low and below 1000.

Part B

E. amylovora was consistently recovered by culturing from mature inoculated apple calyxes 2 days after they had been placed in an orchard. After this, there was a slight decrease in the efficiency of recovery of E. amylovora. Populations of viable E. amylovora in the inoculated apple discards decreased 104 fold over a 20-day sampling period.

E. amylovora was not detected by either culture of PCR in any of the 800 apple flowers and leaves tested over the 20-day sampling period. Furthermore, fire blight symptoms were not observed on any trees throughout the subsequent growing season.

Publications

Two unrefereed poster presentations at fire blight workshop - on development of quantitative detection and one on the apple discard work.

1.12 FMA 171

Programme Title: Identification Key to Tydeidae of New Zealand
Programme Leader: Dr Zhi-Qiang Zhang
Institution: Landcare Research, Auckland

Summary

This project provides a user-friendly identification key to the genera and species of the mites of Tydeidae in New Zealand. It enables the identification of tydeid mites in New Zealand to facilitate requests for rapid quarantine decisions from trading partners. The key was constructed through careful studies of over 1000 specimens preserved on slides and was illustrated with drawings and photographs of discriminating characters. A total of 12 genera and 29 species was included in the key, including 2 genera new to science. Distribution, diagnosis, list of specimens and illustrations were provided for each species.

Background

The goals of this project are to provide a use-friendly identification key to the genera and species of the mites in the families Tydeidae occurring in New Zealand.

A key is required which allows identification of tydeid mites in New Zealand in order to facilitate requests for rapid quarantine decisions from trading partners.

Approach & Outcomes

Existing slide-mounted specimens in NZAC, MAF Operation in Lincoln and Lynfield, and other material were collated, assessed and examined by light microscopy and diagnostic features discriminating general and species were identified and illustrated by line drawings and by photography. The information was collated into an illustrated dichotomous key. Unnamed species were referred to by code. Distributional data was provided on published records but mostly from data accompanying the specimens.

Over 400 slides containing 1,000 specimens of New Zealand tydeid mites were studied. An illustrated key to 12 genera and 29 species of the Tydeidae was constructed. Seven subfamilies of the Tydeidae are represented in New Zealand. Among the 12 genera, two are new to science and three are new records for New Zealand. Among the 29 species, 72 percent are unnamed. For each species, the following data was provided: distribution, a brief diagnosis, a list of specimens examined and illustrations.

Publications

Zhang, Z.-Q.A new genus of Tydeidea (Acari: Prostigmata) from New Zealand with characters of special phylogenetic significance. (in preparation).

1.13 FMA 134

Programme Title: An assessment of the Asian Crisis and Droughts: 1997-2000
Programme Leader: Peter Gardiner
Institution: New Zealand Institute of Economic Research (NZIER)

Summary

The objective of this research was to update NZIER's original analysis of the short-term impact of the Asian financial crisis and the 1997/98 drought on the New Zealand agricultural and forestry sector. Since the onset of the Asian financial crisis and the 1997/98 drought the world economy and the New Zealand agricultural and forestry sectors have progressed significantly. The world economy bounced back strongly in 1999 and the agricultural sector, after two consecutive droughts, was blessed with excellent growing conditions in the 1999/2000 season.

To examine the effects of the impact of the demand and supply shocks on the NZ economy we initially used a two-stage regression model to investigate the impact of the changes in supply and demand conditions on agricultural and forestry, and other exports. After the impact on NZ export sector was established we used an input-output framework to estimate the impact of the supply and demand shocks on the New Zealand economy.

This study estimated that the supply and demand shocks cost $3,247 million in lost output between June 1997 and June 1999 (this estimate is nominal, based on the type I output multiplier). Approximately $1,070 million is cost resulted from a fall in agriculture and forestry exports. However, between June 1999 and June 2000, the turn around in both supply and demand conditions has netted an additional $1,375 million in output. Of this additional income approximately $833 million was generated from the agricultural and forestry sector.

The impact of the supply and demand shocks on GDP is estimated at $1,259 million between June 1997 and June 2000. Between June 1997 and June 1999 the impact of the supply shock's impact on GDP estimated at $2,098 million. Since June 1999, the positive supply and demand shocks boosted GDP by an additional $839 million.

Background

The objective of this research was to update NZIER's original analysis of the short-term impact of the Asian financial crisis and the 1997/98 drought on the New Zealand agricultural and forestry sector. The original study was completed in July 1999, since then, several developments, both internationally and domestically, has occurred that has necessitated this update.

Since the onset of the Asian financial crisis and the 1997/98 drought the world economy and the New Zealand agricultural and forestry sectors have progressed significantly. The world economy bounced back strongly in 1999, and the agricultural sector, after two consecutive droughts, began to recover with excellent growing conditions in the 1999/2000 season.

Approach & Outcomes

To estimate the impact of the changes in supply and demand conditions on the New Zealand agricultural and forestry sector and the New Zealand economy June 1997 and June 2000 we first investigated the impact that changes in supply and demand had on the export sector. To do this we employed a two-stage regression model to investigate the impact of the changes in supply and demand conditions on agricultural and forestry exports. Having completed the first stage we then used an input-output framework to estimate the impact of the supply and demand shocks on the New Zealand economy.

We employed an input-output framework to estimate the impact of the supply and demand shocks on the New Zealand economy. Using multiplier analysis we have estimated the supply and demand shocks cost $3,247 million in lost output between June 1997 and June 1999 (this estimate is nominal, based on the type I output multiplier). Approximately $1,070 million of this cost resulted from a fall in agricultural and forestry exports. However, since June 1999, the turnaround in both supply and demand conditions has netted an additional $1,375 million in output. Of this additional output approximately $833 million was generated from the agricultural and forestry sector. Specific changes in nominal exports and output are estimated as follows:

  • The 1997/98 drought was estimated to cost $177 million in exports, and $407 million in lost output. The loss to national output equates to around 0.4 percent of GDP.
  • The 1998/99 drought caused an estimated $53 million in lost exports and an estimated $126 million in lost production or 0.1 percent of GDP.
  • The cost of the Asian crisis on exports and output between June 1997 and June 1999 was estimated at $247 million and $537 million respectively. The loss to national income is estimated at around 0.5 percent of GDP.
  • In the June 2000 year, good growing and demand conditions have helped improve exports by $394 million. This is turn has provided an estimated $833 million in additional output.

Publications

Paper to be presented at the NZAES annual conference, July 2001.

1.14 FMA 151

Programme Title: Assessment of calf castration methods
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

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Farm Monitoring Programme Manager
Monitoring and Evaluation
MAF Policy
PO Box 2526
Wellington
NEW ZEALAND
Phone: +64 4 894 0623
Fax: +64 4 894 0741
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