4. Facilitating Resource Management

4.1 FRM 440

Programme Title: Gully Management, Gisborne District (Parts 1 and 2)
Programme Leader: Dr Michael Marden
Institution: Landcare Research New Zealand Limited

Summary

To provide a pro-active approach to gully management in the Gisborne District, by the identification and classification of `active' gully systems, and objective measurement of their scale and distribution.

The modified (1999) policy for the East Coast Forestry Project requires that `where gullies are present, planting must be proposed'. Therefore information is required about the spatial distribution of gullies within this District and the scale of the problem (number and size of individual gullies), using a consistent methodology, so that MAF can implement policy changes made to the East Coast Forestry Project.

Gullies were identified stereoscopically on 1:25 000 scale colour aerial photographs and the outlines of those gullies interpreted as being "active", together with their watersheds, were delineated directly onto the photographs as closed polygons. Colour photocopies were made of those prints that displayed the line-work and these were lodged with the Project Manager in Gisborne for digitising at some later date. Accompanying spreadsheets provide information for each identified gully including: a discrete gully number, a gully classification, dominant watershed vegetation cover and an `effectiveness ranking'.

From an analysis of the 1061 aerial photographic prints required to cover the Gisborne District a total of 1647 individual gullies, deemed to be actively contributing sediment to streams and rivers, have been identified. Photocopies of 305 aerial photo prints have been submitted directly to the Manager of the East Coast Forestry Project, Gisborne Office.

Background

The goal of this project was to provide a pro-active approach to gully management in the Gisborne District, by the identification and classification of `active' gully systems, and objective measurement of their scale and distribution.

The modified (1999) policy for the East Coast Forestry Project requires that `where gullies are present, planting must be proposed'. Under the original (1992) policy, the "minor or incipient" gullies were sometimes planted however "moderate sized" gullies, where stabilisation is technically feasible, were left unplanted. Recent findings by Landcare Research have shown that in the East Coast Region most of the sediment generated by erosion is derived from gullies rather than from slope processes (shallow landslides, slumps etc). Information is therefore required about the spatial distribution of gullies within this District and the scale of the problem (number and size of individual gullies), using a consistent methodology, so that MAF can implement policy changes made to the East Coast Forestry Project.

Approach & Outcomes

Gullies were identified stereoscopically on 1:25 000 scale colour aerial photographs. The outlines of those gullies interpreted as being "active", together with their watersheds, were delineated directly onto the photography as closed polygons. Colour photocopies were made of those prints that displayed the line-work and these were lodged with the Project Manager in Gisborne. MAF's GIS expert in Gisborne will digitise the line-work directly from these photocopies at some later date. Accompanying spreadsheets provide information for each identified gully. This includes: a discrete gully number, a gully classification, dominant watershed vegetation cover and an `effectiveness ranking' should `rehabilitation' of the gullies, be contemplated in the future.

From an analysis of the 1061 aerial photographic prints required to cover the Gisborne District a total of 1647 individual gullies, deemed to be actively contributing sediment to streams and rivers, have been identified. Photocopies of 305 of the aerial photo prints have been submitted directly to the Manager of the East Coast Forestry Project, Gisborne Office.

During the course of this contract a number of misconceptions surrounding the intended use of this data and of the implications of the concept of using the `watershed' as a gully rehabilitation management unit have arisen. The following will hopefully spell-out the authors intent as it was proposed to MAF in the `Expression of Interest - Operational Research'.

The concept of gully mapping was designed to draw attention to the extreme nature of the gully problem in this region, both on-site, and to the downstream impacts associated with flooding and gravel aggradation, derived largely from gullies. It was hoped that the digitised maps, once complete, would highlight (visually and numerically) the magnitude of the problem and prompt more effort towards their rehabilitation under the auspices of the East Coast Forestry Project. It was therefore seen as another tool to be used in the decision making process when identifying the most eligible target land. It was not the intention that this `gully mapping' exercise be used as an alternative to traditional means for identifying `target land', such as the New Zealand Land Resource Inventory. Besides, its application for this purpose is limited in that it does not incorporate areas of `target land' dominated by other forms of erosion, e.g. earthflows and slumps. Conversely, gullies occur in areas currently considered under the project guidelines as being `non-target' land. At present there are no government-assisted funding mechanisms to promote the rehabilitation of these gullies. In addition watershed areas surrounding gullies may, in many instances, incorporate substantial areas of `non-target' land and thus these gullies become ineligible for funding under East Coast Forestry Project. These issues have yet to be addressed.

Using the `watershed boundary' as a potential management unit for gully rehabilitation does not necessarily imply `blanket afforestation' as the only treatment option for all `active' gullies. The concept however did arise from the knowledge that water runoff from the watershed area surrounding a gully is the principle driver of gully erosion. The most effective means of reducing the amount of runoff reaching a gully is to produce a closed-canopy of vegetation across those parts of the watershed that contribute most to runoff. The quickest means of achieving this is either blanket afforestation or reversion of an already established and reasonably extensive cover of scrub.

The use of `the watershed" as a management boundary will be applicable in some but not all instances. In the instance where slopes surrounding an `active' gully are unstable and signs of instability extend to the watershed divide then `the watershed' becomes an obvious management unit. The treatment prescribed will depend on the type, severity, extent and degree of activity of the erosion processes that dominate that watershed. In other instances where factors such as geology, slope angle, vegetation extent and type, erosion process etc changes within a single watershed then these other factors should assume greater significance than `the watershed' itself when choosing the bounds of a management unit. Property ownership issues within the same watershed would also confound the use of the watershed boundary as a management unit.

Thus many of the more severely eroding gullies, particularly those surrounded by pasture will require full afforestation of their watersheds, or a significant part thereof, to have any realistic hope of effectively reducing the activity of those gullies. However, given that there are 1647 gullies with the East Coast Region and that they range in size form 0.1 to 32 ha in size, and that they occur across a variety of different lithologies, slope units and vegetation types and differ markedly in their degree of `activity', then realistically more than one rehabilitation strategy must be taken into consideration.

4.2 FRM 441

Programme Title: Pig `free range' management systems
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Summary

This review of pig welfare in different management systems identifies welfare problems with all systems. Dry sow stalls limit the expression of many normal behaviours, which are easily expressed in outdoor systems. However the latter may impact on piglet and weaner survival. The human-pig relationship may out-weight all other factors relating to welfare in different pig management systems.

Background

This review will discuss the components of the various management systems, which improve or impede the welfare of pigs.

Several welfare issues are associated with `intensive' management of pigs. The factors affecting the development of welfare problems in `non-intensive' management systems including outdoor, organic and indoor pen systems will be reviewed.

Approach & Outcomes

The literature on pig production and pig welfare will be reviewed.

The welfare of pigs is a controversial subject and specific aspects of modern pig management including dry sow stalls and farrowing crates, are considered unacceptable by animal welfare groups. The support for outdoor pig production systems is based on the perception that sows living outdoors can forage and lead a "fuller" life. Indoor deep litter systems allow sows to forage. Sow stalls protect sows from aggression and allow selective feeding of individual sows and easy observation, recognition and treatment of injuries and disease. While these advantages are obvious the down side to stalls is the inability of the sow to exercise and to interact with other sows. However in group housing systems aggression between sows may be a problem and this may be accompanied by poor access to feed by subordinate sows unless a feeding system that allows differential feeding of individual animals is used. Organic systems do not allow for the routine use of conventional prophylaxis and treatments, and thus reduce the farmers' ability to maintain a healthy herd.

Every pig production system has features that improve pig welfare and some that reduce it. Thus outdoor production allows sows to forage but may result in poorer attention to individual sows and cause high piglet and weaner mortality. Group housing indoors in deep litter allows foraging but the numbers in pens may make it difficult to monitor body condition and modify feed intakes to maintain sows at the correct body condition. Sows in groups in pens may be able to move more than sows in stalls but this allows for aggression which is something sows in stalls are not subjected to. Farrowing crates restrict a sows movements but protects piglets, while loose farrowing systems allow quite the opposite to occur.

A common theme is the fact that good human-pig interactions may be more important than any other aspect of pig management, regardless of system.

4.3 FRM 442

Programme Title: Transportation of ostrich and emu - issues and recommendations
Programme Leader: Ross Davies
Institution: Corporate Logistics Limited

Summary

The principle goal of this project was to analyse the effects of transportation on ratite welfare, and to make recommendations on how to minimise stress. The focus of the research was on ostriches, with some reference made to emu. Little is known about the practice of farming ostrich and emu in New Zealand, as it is a young industry. Concerns have arisen about the stresses imposed surrounding the transportation function, and the animal's ability to cope with them. This project aimed to identify and analyse the potential stressors present during this function.

An extensive literature review led to the development of a series of trials that were carried out using heart rate, skin temperature, and behavioural response as indicators of stress. Results from these trials were used to identify transportation stressors, to quantify the levels of stress, and to investigate methods that may help minimise stress and maintain animal's welfare during the transport function.

Research and literature presented a number of issues that may have negative impacts on the welfare of ostrich and emu during transportation. These were identified as either being part of the "direct" transport activity, or those "peripheral" to (being prior to, or post) the transport function. In addition a number stressor subsets were identified as either "irritant" or "intermittent" stressors associated with the transport function. For example constant vibration from the transporter, or the intrusion of flashes of light into the tranporter from passing cars. The main conclusions drawn were that during the direct transport function the PSIs indicated stress levels are always elevated and the behaviour exhibited could not generally be considered normal. Transportation in darkness may be potentially beneficial for reducing stress and maintaining welfare. It was apparent that many of the birds sat during transportation at night. The improved stability while sitting may have attributed to the lowering of stress levels. The use of hooding as a passive restraint may also have negative implications on animal welfare as the stress indicators used in this study indicate the present of Bradycardia, which is symptomatic of stress.

Background

To investigate and analyse the effects of transportation of ratites, in particular ostrich and emu, under New Zealand conditions and to determine the major issues adversely affecting the birds from an animal welfare perspective.

The purpose of the project was to provide an understanding of the current ratite transportation practices in New Zealand and the inherent implications these have on animal welfare. The focus of the project was on ostriches, with some reference made to emu. Members of the industry acknowledged that ratites require special attention during transit and that there is a lack of guidelines promoting their safe and effective transportation. Most of the existing work in this area is based on subjective assessment and experience. This research endeavoured to incorporate an objective approach, with corroboration from the subject elements, to give an indication of the animal welfare status during the transportation function.

Approach & Outcomes

An extensive literature review was performed to establish an understanding of measurements and quantification of stress in animals, of ratite behaviour and of current transportation practices on the global stage. From this, areas were highlighted that required greater understanding, and that might prove successful in minimising stress in ratites during the transportation function. Indicators of stress were defined as being both physiological and behavioural in nature, and used concurrently tools to give a comprehensive welfare assessment during trials. The Physiological Stress Indicators used were heart rate and skin temperature.

The research component was developed based on literature findings and involved welfare assessments of ratites in their `natural' environment, during transportation, during darkened transportation, and after changing their directional orientation during transportation. Conclusions were drawn and recommendations made on the results of these trials and on other issues of relevance identified in literature.

The terms Physiological Stress Indicator (PSI) and Behavioural Stress Indicators (BSIs) were introduced. The establishment of the basal levels for PSIs and BSIs and the conclusion that there was a significant correlation between the indicators lead to the development of the Ratite Stress Profile Table. The table could be of use to farmers, handlers, and tranporters as a guideline for gauging stress levels in ratites based on observed behaviour.

Transport was defined as having two clear areas of stressor activity; that which occurred during transport and defined as part of the "direct" transport activity, and that which was "peripheral" and occurred either prior to, or post, the direct transport function. In addition a number of stressor subsets were identified as either "irritant" or "intermittent" stressors associated with the transport function, for example constant vibration of the transporter, or the intrusion of flashes of light into the transporter from passing cars. The main conclusions drawn were that:

  • During the direct transport function the PSIs indicated stress levels are always elevated and that behaviour exhibited could not generally be considered normal.
  • Many of the birds transported at night sat throughout the journey. The improved stability attributed to sitting might have been responsible for the positive effect in lowering stress levels. It is a recommendation that darkened transportation needs to be promoted to the industry but would also benefit from further investigation.
  • PSIs and BSIs collected during hooding suggest an abnormal response to the application of the hood. Heart rates of birds hooded and left unattended often declined to levels below those considered normal; giving rise to the suggestion that bradycardia (freezing response) might be occurring. Bradycardia is considered to be symptomatic of a level of stress and therefore raises questions about this practice.
  • The results from the study on bird's directional orientation were found to be inconclusive, although there was a slight reduction in the overall BSIs for the journey the PSIs tended to show the opposite. More work would be required in order to prove or disprove the hypothesis.

Publications

The application of darkness to the transportation of ratites. (Under preparation)

4.4 FRM 443

Programme Title: Developing management guidelines for the sustainable management of indigenous forests on private land
Programme Leader: Ross Allen
Institution: Landcare Research

Summary

The implications for indigenous forest management of our individual tree growth modelling are very significant. If long-term stand sustainability, optimum harvestable increment and healthy stand structure and composition are to be maintained, then management requires on-site decisions to be made about individual trees. This will be very different to clear-cut management techniques applied in uniform plantation forestry where mean plot-level attributes of trees and site are used as effective predictors of tree growth.

We have considerably extended the quantitative basis for an ecological site classification of properties relevant to forest management, through our application of redundancy analysis. Our results so far show different factors can influence the various forest values being managed for individual properties and that coarse site classifications will probably be more useful than finely divided ones. Although our analyses to date have revolved around three carefully studied properties, this is a limited range of situations from which to attempt to generalise about predictability and consistency in variables appropriate for site classification. It seems unlikely to expect that one site classification framework would be suitable for the diverse range of environments and forest types across New Zealand. This is not to say, however, that every property will have to be treated in a unique way. What is likely is that there will be consistency within climate zones and forest types. We suggest further sites are studied to determine where this is the case.

Background

The goal of this project is to continue the development of an approach to ecological site classification that would result in management of individual properties in a way that retains as full a set of forest values as possible.

The maintenance of as full a range of forest values as possible will require silvicultural systems that are designed to take account of variation in structure, composition and growth of natural forest stands. This will be achieved through:

  • Completion of data collection to assess the effects of tree competition on tree growth in a private forest in Southland.
  • A comparative analysis of data collected on three properties for the purpose of ecological site classification. This will be undertaken to determine similarities in biotic and abiotic factors controlling variables of interest to management (e.g. tree growth).
  • A synthesis of the literature will allow us to determine how general the factors controlling the structure, tree growth, and functioning of forests on the three properties are in relation to other New Zealand forests at the scale of individual properties.

Approach & Outcomes

Additional data was collected for 371 trees at Lillburn, Southland, from which cores had previously been collected and measured. This data included crown dimensions, crown quality assessment and measurements of adjacent trees to develop competition indices. Data from three properties was combined to allow comparable analyses of growth to be made for each property and to allow all management variables to be modelled simultaneously. This required that units of measurement were the same, that derived variables were calculated in the same way and that variables not originally derived for an area were now calculated.

We applied two quantitative analysis techniques to modelling tree growth and predicting management response variables that have been so applied. Individual tree growth models were developed for black beech, tawa and silver beech, for three properties using multilevel (also called hierarchical) regression models. These models allow group membership (in this case plot membership) to be taken into account. Statistically speaking, this is achieved by including the grouping variable (in our example this is "plot") as a random effect in the model and specifying an appropriate covariance structure.

Redundancy analysis was used to model all management response variables simultaneously. This is a form of multivariate regression with linear constraints on the regression coefficients of the predictor variables. This analysis maximises the correlations between all of the response variables and all of the predictor variables. For the purposes here, the advantage is that it allows us to produce a graphical plot that summarises the major commonalties of the separate regressions used to predict our management response variables.

Between 74 and 96 percent of the variation in individual tree basal area growth that could be explained was explained by individual tree-level variation. Of the supplied predictor variables, a competition index based on the summed diameter of all trees larger than an individual, divided by the diameter of that individual, was strongly predictive of tree growth for the three species modelled. In contrast, less of the variation in growth was explained by plot level-variation in growth. Important plot-level predictors included elevation, soil fertility, topographic position, and compositional patterns.

While there was some commonality in variables that predicted individual tree growth across the three properties, there was less consistency in the predictors that related to management response variables. These seemed more dependent on property or species. When we reduced the redundancy analysis dimensions to two and selected that subset of predictor variables that best predicted in the management variables, they explained about one half of the variation that could be explained. One implication of this for management is that it would be best not to divide properties too finely into management units defined by site characteristics. Fewer units would result in them being largely different from each other.

4.5 FRM 444

Programme Title: Modelling growth & yield
Programme Leader: Graham Whyte
Institution: Forplan Services

Additional work is being completed on the final report for this project and a summary is therefore unavailable for inclusion in this report. The results of this project will be included in the next Research Results report.

4.6 FRM 445

Programme Title: Management guidelines for pinhole borer in beech forests
Programme Leader: Dr Ecke Brockerhoff
Institution: Forest Research

Summary

This study examined the effects of slash and stump treatments that are thought to reduce the risk of damage from pinhole borer beetles following selection harvesting of beech. For three years following harvesting in north Westland, treated and untreated slash and stumps were monitored for pinhole borer attack, emergence of beetles and wood conditions. To assess the potential impact of harvesting on the health of the remaining forest, trees around the coupe edges and in control plots were monitored, and the compartment-wide mortality was estimated.

By mid-2001, treatments had no effect on moisture content, decay of slash or beetle emergence, although the number of active borer tunnels that produced boring dust decreased more in treated than in untreated slash. Because there will be continuing emergence of beetles in the next and following years, it is not yet clear whether the treatments will eventually result in a decrease in pinhole borer emergence. The heavy and continuing attack of slash suggests there is the potential for a build-up of populations that may lead to increasing attack of healthy trees, although so far this has not happened to any great extent. It is too early to make definitive management recommendations with regard to the slash and stump treatments under investigation, but because of the potential risk of pinhole borer outbreaks, it is recommended to implement preventative control methods. It is clear that cutting stumps as low to the ground as possible will continue to reduce the build-up of pinhole borer populations. Monitoring the development of populations is recommended to enable a response to pinhole borer outbreaks that could potentially lead to dieback in the remaining forest.

Background

The goal of this project is to continue research for the development of guidelines for minimising the incidence and effects of pinhole borer following harvesting, to underpin policy advice on Part IIIA of the Forest Act 1949.

The sustainable management of New Zealand's beech forests requires attention to the native pinhole borer beetles, Platypus spp. Harvesting or natural forest disturbance can lead to outbreaks of these beetles, which may result in mortality of healthy beech trees. To avoid such outbreaks, management prescriptions recommend the cutting of harvesting slash into 1-m pieces and the treatment of stumps with urea. This is thought to accelerate drying or decomposition processes, which would reduce the survival of pinhole borer brood. However, in the selection harvesting system that is now often practised, the effectiveness of slash and stump treatments has not been assessed. Furthermore, little information is available on the potential impact of pinhole borer in these conditions. These are important issues for the sustainable management of beech forests, especially those under private ownership where harvesting occurs.

Approach & Outcomes

The incidence of pinhole borer attack in treated and untreated slash and stumps has been monitored since November 1998 in eight experimental plots established shortly after selection harvesting of beech trees at Station Creek, Maruia Valley, north Westland. To obtain more detailed data on the breeding success and phenology of pinhole borer, emergence traps were installed over individual borer holes on treated and untreated slash and stumps. The effects of the treatments on moisture content and decay of slash samples were monitored. To assess the potential impact of harvesting on the health of the remaining forest, trees around the coupe edges and in control plots were monitored. The data were also used to estimate the compartment-wide mortality of beech trees.

Following harvesting in late 1998, there was a heavy attack by pinhole borer of nearly all slash sections and stumps. During the first two years, cutting slash and treating stumps did not result in reduced attack or apparent survival of pinhole borer. By mid-2001, there was neither an effect on moisture content or decay of slash, nor on the emergence of beetles. However, in this last year, the number of tunnels producing boring dust was lower in treated than untreated slash. It is not yet clear whether this will also result in a decrease in pinhole borer emergence in the next and following years, because there is at least one more year of emergence of beetles originating from the initial attack. Furthermore, many new attacks have occurred in the past year, coinciding with the first substantial emergence of beetles from this slash. Thus, the value of these treatments could still become apparent in the following years. With continuing emergence of large numbers of beetles from this slash, as well as new attacks, there is the potential for a build-up of populations and further attack and increasing mortality of healthy trees. However, so far this has not happened to any great extent, although mortality appeared to be slightly higher among edge trees than in control plots. When extrapolated to the entire compartment, the observed level of mortality is below that assumed by a stand model.

Although the slash and stump treatments have not yet shown any substantial benefits there is still a possibility for longer-term effects. Thus, it is too early to make definitive management recommendations from this study. Nevertheless, the study shows that substantial attack of slash and stumps by pinhole borer can occur and that there is a risk of attack and mortality of edge trees when large amounts of slash are available for breeding of pinhole borer. To prevent this, particularly where pinhole borer populations are large and the risk of attack is high, it is recommended to implement preventative control methods. There is little doubt that cutting stumps as low to the ground as possible is useful as this reduces the amount of material available for breeding. It is also recommended to monitor the development of pinhole borer populations after harvesting to enable a response to outbreaks that could potentially lead to dieback in the remaining forest. More research and monitoring are required to determine the potential value of slash and stump treatments. This trial presents an excellent opportunity to monitor the longer-term impact of pinhole borer after selection harvesting.

4.7 FRM 446

Programme Title: Assessing existing silviculture trials
Programme Leader: Susan Wiser
Institution: Landcare

Summary

The purpose of these trials is to study the sustainability of both ecological values and management of forest for timber production following small-coupe and group-selection harvesting in beech forest. These trials are at Granville Forest, Westland (small-coupes established 1994) and Station Creek, Westland (small-coupes established 1994-1996, group-selection areas harvested in 1998, transects established 1998-2001). This report presents the results of monitoring of the small-coupes at Granville Forest and Station Creed and the group-selection trials at Station Creek from 1994 to 2001.

Background

The goal of this project is to monitor a set of operational research trials of low-impact eco-silviculture. With the intention of providing results for long-term protection of beech forest while also providing economic benefit from sustainable production of high-value hardwoods. Over the past 7 years there has been funding to develop ecologically sustainable beech management though variable group-selection silviculture by practising small-coupe (<0.01ha) low-impact harvesting. The intent of the ongoing monitoring is to:

  • Test the sustainability of the group-selection system of silviculture in beech forest.
  • Evaluate the immediate and long-term implications of small regeneration fellings (0.04 - 0.20ha), with the aim of containing the impacts within limits similar to those of natural forest processes.
  • Monitor forest health, regrowth, composition, and plant biodiversity within permanent transect plots.
  • Develop an effective and practical approach to minimise damage by pinhole beetles (Platypus) to forest health and wood degrade.

Approach & Outcomes

The methods were:

  • Permanent monitoring transects had been established previously on nine coupes and three control areas at Granville Forest, and six coupes and three controls at Station Creek, Westland. Coupes vary in size and location with respect to landform, harvesting hygiene, and extraction method.
  • Coupe-edge trees had been previously tagged and assessed for health and presence of damage by pinhole beetles. These have been monitored annually.
  • Contiguous understorey subplots of 0.5 x1m along the ground transects at Granville Forest were resurveyed annually for the first five years after establishment. Now measurements are made every second year. These were resurveyed for changes in vegetation status in March 2001.
  • Contiguous overstorey subplots (10 x 10m) along the transects at Granville Forest and Station Creek were resurveyed annually for the first five years after establishment. Now measurements are made every second year. Those at Granville Forest were resurveyed for changes in sapling density and tree diameters in March 2001.
  • At Granville Forest, a survey of all higher-order plant species, including invasive weeds, was made on the total area of each coupe in March 2001, and within 5m of the transect line in the control areas.
  • Ten transects consisting of 40 understory subplots (0.5 x 1m) were measured in the group-selection trial area on transects originally established by E.G. Brockerhoff and G. Baker.
  • Eight new transects were established in the group-selection trial area to extend the range of environmental conditions sampled and better parallel conditions of Station Creek small-coupe trials. These followed the methods outlined in Benecke & Backer (1994).
  • GSP positions were recorded for the eighteen transects in the group-selection, and directions and distances between transects were recorded.

The results were:

  • During timber extraction process it is most important that care be taken to reduce subsequent mortality of edge trees. Even trees that appear to suffer little damage during extraction are more likely to be attacked by pinhole beetle and die. At both Granville and Station Creed ongoing mortality is still higher in edge trees that were damaged during harvesting than in non-damaged trees.
  • Patterns of compensatory growth, i.e. increased growth rates in edge trees that have been released from competition by harvesting of neighbours, are becoming more clear with time. The presence and rates of compensatory growth vary across species.
  • At Granville Forest, some of the herbaceous weeds that initially invaded the coupes have disappeared.

4.8 FRM 447

Programme Title: Investigation of rapid onset and long-acting analgesia for velvet antler removal
Programme Leader: Peter Wilson
Institution: Massey University

Summary

This research showed that azaperone was not a suitable tranquilliser for this type of research.

Background

The goal of this project was to pilot a study to investigate the suitability of azaperone as a tranquilliser to establish a model for investigation of painful procedures performed on deer.

Current methods for evaluating potentially painful procedures such as velvet antler removal in stags are relatively crude, because of behaviour variation and the impact of handling stress on physiological responses. "Dampening" background physiological responses before experimental procedures may provide a model for measuring pain associated with husbandry procedures such as velvet antler removal. Blood cortisol concentrations were chosen as the marker to evaluate the effect of a post-operative non-steroidal anti-flammatory analgesic agent.

Approach & Outcomes

Stags were all injected with azaperone about 1 hour before experimental procedures. Velvet antler removal was undertaken by physical restraint using lignocaine local anaesthesia. Nine animals received intramuscular ketoprofen while the remainder acted as controls. Blood samples were collected for cortisol before antler removal and for five hours afterwards.

Baseline cortisol concentrations were high. There were no differences between mean cortisol concentrations of ketoprofen-treated and control animals.

4.9 FRM 449

Programme Title: Layer hen welfare in modified cage or alternative systems
Programme Leader: Dr Lindsay Matthews
Institution: AgResearch

Summary

The aim of the project was to review the usefulness and appropriateness of alternative egg production systems in New Zealand, for improving animal welfare. Standards of animal welfare in alternative systems (including modified cages) were assessed by gathering information from a wide variety of sources: the international published literature, direct contact with researchers and equipment manufacturers; and, visits to producers using alternative systems.

The furnished cage is one alternative that is being heavily researched and tested under commercial conditions in Europe. Its main advantage over the conventional cage is that furniture is provided so that several important behaviours (perching, nesting and pecking/scratching) can be accommodated. Mortalities can be a problem with high light levels, large group sizes and non-beak-trimmed birds. There is a wide variety of different aviary (and related) systems in use internationally, many of them in Switzerland where cages (conventional or otherwise) are not permitted by law. Available information suggests that there is considerable variation in the welfare states of aviary-housed birds from good to poor. Feather pecking and cannibalism are predominant problem unless light levels are kept low and or the birds are beak trimmed. Of all the alternative layer hen systems, free-range has the potential to allow birds the most behavioural freedom. From the limited information available, free-range systems also appear to expose the birds to the greatest risk of disease, parasites and mortality. In published studies, it is apparent that most hens spend most of their time in the protective housing provided, and when outdoor, remain in close proximity to the building. Feather pecking and cannibalism, particularly in non-beak trimmed birds, can be welfare problems in free-range systems.

Background

The goal of this project is to review the usefulness and appropriateness of alternative egg production systems in New Zealand, for improving animal welfare. The welfare of layer hens kept in conventional cages is being questioned on welfare grounds in New Zealand and elsewhere. Various systems (including modified or furnished cages) are viewed as possible alternatives to the conventional cage. A summary of the literature on non-cage alternative systems was completed by Littin and Gregory in 1997.

This project is an up-to-date summary of published reports, and other work in progress, evaluating the welfare of layer hens in modified cages and other alternative production systems.

Approach & Outcomes

Information was gathered from a wide variety of sources including:

  • searches of the international databases on published scientific material
  • directly, by request, from all leading researchers investigating layer hen welfare
  • attendance at the 6th European Symposium on Poultry Welfare held in Switzerland, September 2001
  • from discussions with manufacturers of equipment used in layer hen production systems
  • from discussions with most of the international researchers investigating layer hen welfare
  • visits to egg producers in Switzerland using alternative production systems.

The outcomes were:

  • The furnished cage is one alternative that is being heavily researched and tested under commercial conditions in Europe. Its main advantage over the conventional cage is that furniture is provided so that several important behaviours (perching, nesting and pecking/scratching) can be accommodated. Further research is required to identify the best ways to arrange the furniture, and to determine optimal group sizes so that the birds' welfare requirements and commercial objectives can be met. Mortalities can be a problem with high light levels, large group sizes and non-beak-trimmed birds. There is a wide variety of different aviary (and related) systems in use internationally, many of them in Switzerland where cages (conventional or otherwise) are not permitted by law. There is a paucity of scientific evaluation of the welfare outcomes of these systems. Available information suggests that there is considerable variation in the welfare states of aviary-housed birds from good to poor. Feather pecking and cannibalism are predominant problems unless light levels are kept low and or the birds are beak trimmed. Of all the alternative layer hen systems, free-range has the potential to allow birds the most behavioural freedom. From the limited information available, free-range systems appear to expose the birds to the greatest risk of disease, parasites and mortality. In published studies, it is apparent that most hens spend most of their time in the protective housing provided, and when outdoor, remain in close proximity to the building. Feather pecking and cannibalism, particularly in non-beak trimmed birds, can be welfare problems in free-range systems.
  • Of the three types of alternative system evaluated in this report, only the furnished cage system is not in use (or as far as we are aware, under test) in New Zealand. The view of many researchers in Europe is that the furnished cage offers the best alternative system to the conventional cage for protecting the welfare of hens in commercial layer operations. Details of welfare standards and performance in New Zealand alternative systems are required so that they can be:
  1. placed in an international context, and
  2. used as benchmarks in comparisons between egg production systems and for assessing modification to practices, if required.

4.10 FRM 450

Programme Title: Broiler welfare - a review of latest research and projects in progress internationally
Programme Leader: Dr Lindsay Matthews
Institution: AgResearch

Summary

The aim of the project was to review recent research information on the welfare of broiler chickens. Material was gathered from a wide variety of sources, including the published scientific literature, direct contact with researchers and through attendance at an international Symposium.

  • The major welfare issues include leg and mobility disorders, contact dermatitis, ascites, sudden death syndrome and lack of behavioural complexity. Each of these conditions is influenced by a wide range of genetic, health, environmental, feeding and other management related factors. Further, each health or welfare problem can influence the incidence of any or all of the other types of disorder. One key factor underlies most of the welfare issues: the fast growth rate of the broiler (due to intense genetic selection and nutrient supply). Many procedures have been developed to moderate the effects of fast growth on broiler health and welfare. Some of the most successful techniques reduce the rate of growth early in the rearing period, increase the level of locomotory activity, and, reduce the incidence of pathogens in the environment or incidence of diseases. Two management procedures that are particularly useful in stimulating locomotory activity are intermittent lighting and/or meal feeding. Leg disorders are also likely to be reduced through genetic selection. A new finding is that stocking density per se does not appear to be major direct cause of most welfare problems traditionally associated with high stocking rates. Rather, it appears that factors such as poor control of litter quality and temperature, and other environmental conditions are more directly implicated. Behavioural restriction in broilers seems not to be influenced greatly by the lack of complexity of the rearing environment; rather, it is a by-product of selection for rapid growth.
  • There is no published information for New Zealand production on broiler welfare, behaviour, or on the status of the key environmental parameters (such as air and litter quality and temperature/humidity) which influence broiler welfare, or on the relationship of such measures to changes in stocking density. Details of welfare standards and performance in the New Zealand broiler industry are required so that they can be: (1) placed on an international context; and (2) used as a benchmark in the evaluation of alternative management strategies, should they be required.

Background

The goal of the project was to review and report on the latest published research results, and projects in progress internationally with a view to improving broiler welfare under New Zealand conditions.

The welfare of broiler chickens is an area of increasing concern in New Zealand and elsewhere. There is no published information on the welfare of broilers raised in New Zealand. New Zealand broiler production systems are similar in many respects to those used in other countries. Further, there is considerable research internationally on the welfare of broilers. Hence, a review of the international literature will provide information relevant to the evaluating of the welfare of broilers in New Zealand.

Approach & Outcomes

Information was gathered from a wide variety of sources including:

  • searches of international databases on published scientific material
  • directly, by request, from many of the leading researchers investigating broiler welfare
  • from attendance at the 6th European Symposium on Poultry Welfare held in Switzerland, September 2001
  • from discussions with many of the international researchers investigating broiler welfare
  • visits to, and discussions with, broiler producers and veterinarians.

The outcomes were:

  • The review considers research relevant to broilers in the growing out (rearing phase). The major welfare issues include leg and mobility disorders, contact dermatitis, ascites, sudden death syndrome and lack of behavioural complexity. Each of these conditions is influenced by a wide range of genetic, health, environmental, feeding and other management related factors. Further, each health and welfare problem can influence the incidence of any or all of the other types of disorder. One key factor underlies most of the welfare issues: the fast growth rate of the broiler (due to intense genetic selection and nutrient supply). Many procedures have been developed to moderate the effects of fast growth on broiler health and welfare. Some of the most successful techniques reduce the rate of growth early in the rearing period, increase the level of locomotory activity, and, reduce the incidence of pathogens in the environment or incidence of diseases. Two management procedures that are particularly useful in stimulating locomotory activity are intermittent lighting and/or meal feeding. Leg disorders are also likely to be reduced through genetic selection. A new finding is that stocking density per se does not appear to be a major direct cause of most welfare problems traditionally associated with high stocking rates. Rather, it appears that factors such as poor control of litter quality and temperature, and other environmental conditions are more directly implicated. Behavioural restriction in broilers seems not to be influenced greatly by the lack of complexity of the rearing environment; rather, it is a by-product of selection for rapid growth. Research is required to determine if stocking density or other variables e.g. litter quality/temperature, are underlying causes of these behavioural changes. Such information is critical in devising appropriate management strategies to alleviate any problems.
  • There are no published studies of the incidence of welfare problems in the New Zealand broiler industry. Since the New Zealand industry is free of some diseases, particularly infectious bursal disease (IBD), which is a strong immunosuppressant and has a role in the aetiology of leg disorders, and uses lighting regimes (intermittent lighting) reported to be beneficial for leg development. It would be surprising if the incidence of leg abnormalities and associated conditions (e.g. contact dermatitis) were not lower in New Zealand than elsewhere.
  • There is no published information for New Zealand production on broiler behaviour, or on the status of the key environmental parameters (such as air and litter quality and temperature/humidity) which influence broiler welfare, or on the relationship of such measures to changes in stocking density. Details of welfare standards and performance in the New Zealand broiler industry are required so that they can be: (1) placed in an international context; and (2) used as a benchmark in the evaluation of alternative management strategies, should they be required.

4.11 FRM 452

Programme Title: Potential transmission routes of Campylobacter from the environment to humans - feral animals
Programme Leader: Dr Marion Savill
Institution: Institute of Environmental Science and Research Limited (ESR)

Summary

This research project investigated the hypotheses that the feral animals, rabbits and Australian Brushtail possums, are acting as environmental reservoirs for Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli. These Campylobacter species cause the majority (95 percent) of human cases of campylobacteriosis.

An enrichment multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) method was employed for the simultaneous identification of C. jejuni and C. Coli. Pure cultures were isolated from PCR positive samples and genetically typed by Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE).

The 72 rabbits and 197 possums sampled yielded only one positive C. coli in the rabbit population.

This research suggests that possums and rabbits are not significant environmental reservoirs for C. jejuni and C. coli, at least in the area studied. It therefore provides useful information when assessing potential risk management strategies intended to minimise the impact of campylobacteriosis on the human population.

Background

The goal of this project was to help determine likely Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli reservoirs and the exposure of humans to the environmental sources of these Campylobacter species, in order to allow the development of risk management strategies.

This research investigated the role of possums and rabbits as potential environmental reservoirs for the transmission of Campylobacter to humans. It was an extension of an ongoing project funded by the Ministry of Health. This MoH project is analysing the potential links between Campylobacter in farmed animals, their linkages to water bodies and the overall relationship of Campylobacter transmission pathways to food and humans. Results from these research projects will add to the information required for assessing the criteria for risk management strategies. These strategies are intended to minimise the impact of campylobacteriosis on the human population.

Following a review of the international literature we concluded that the role of possums and rabbits as potential environmental reservoirs has not previously been thoroughly investigated.

Approach & Outcomes

Possums and rabbit were shot in the Ashburton Region. The faecal specimens were collected within 2 hours and transferred to the laboratory within 24 hours.

Faecal samples were enriched in two broths that were selective for the thermophilic species of Campylobacter. Cells were recovered and subjected to a multiplex PCR for the simultaneous identification of C. jejuni and C. coli. Campylobacter isolates from positive broths were genetically typed by Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE).

A total of 72 rabbits and 197 possums were tested for the presence of C. jejuni and C. coli in their faecal material. C. jejuni was not detected in the faeces of rabbits or possums. C. coli was detected in one rabbit sample giving an isolation rate of 1.4 percent. C. coli was not detected in the faeces of possums.

Based on these isolation figures we can say with 95 percent confidence that the "true" population rate for C.jejuni in rabbits is below 5 percent and that of C. jejuni and C. coli in possums is below 2.4 percent. Similarly for rabbits we can say with 95 percent confidence that the "true" population rate for C. coli is above 0.1 percent and below 6.4 percent.

The C. coli isolate that was recovered from a rabbit faecal sample was found to be the same PFGE type as two C. coli isolated from sheep faeces on another distant farm in the Ashburton District. To date, no isolates of C. coli have been detected in cases of human campylobacteriosis in the Ashburton District this year.

4.12 FRM 451

Programme Title: Pathways of faecal microbial transfer from farms to rural streams
Programme Leader: Andrea Donnison
Institution: AgResearch Ltd

Summary

The goal of the programme was to provide information on routes of transmission of faecal bacteria from dairy farms into streams. Faecal bacteria, including pathogens, have been identified in rivers flowing through dairy farms and are being frequently recovered from rural streams being studied in the Waikato.

Twenty samples were collected from dairy farm drains to determine the quality of water with respect to faecal contamination and the presence of the pathogens Campylobacter and Salmonella. Two farms were selected for study, on one of the farms cows were allowed direct access to drains but on the other such access was prevented.

All twenty of the drain samples contained E. coli, demonstrating relatively recent faecal impact. Four of the five samples that were positive for Campylobacter were from the drain to which cows had direct access. Most of there were recovered on the single day in the study period when recent access by cows coincided with water flowing in the drain. The results obtained in this study support direct access of cows to drains as a source of the faecal microbial pathogen, Campylobacter, in rural streams. The hot, dry conditions that prevailed during most of the study period meant that water was seldom flowing in the drains and there was little opportunity for overland flow. Therefore, the relative importance of overland flow as a route of transport from farms to streams could not be determined.

Background

The goal of the project was to provide information on possible routes of transmission of faecal micro-organisms from dairy farms into streams.

Pathogenic bacteria, that are harmful to humans, were identified in rivers flowing through dairy farms (Freshwater Microbiology Programme, MAF, MfE, MoH, 1998-2000). In a project funded by the Foundation for Research, Science & Technology AgResearch and NIWA are investigating faecal microbial contamination of rural streams in the Waikato. Project FRM451 complemented the FoRST programme as it involved measurement of the effects of direct access of cows to farm drains on the quality of water flowing from such drains.

Approach & Outcomes

Two dairy farms were selected for study from an area in which Campylobacter are regularly recovered from streams. On one farm, cows were allowed direct access to drains, but on the other farm, fencing prevented such access. The faecal indicator E. coli and the pathogen Campylobacter were enumerated, and the presence of the pathogen Salmonella was sought, in twenty drain samples collected between March and July 2001.

All of the twenty drain samples contained E. coli, demonstrating they had been subjected to relatively recent faecal impact. E. Coli is known to survive longer than Campylobacter in the environment. In contrast, only five of the samples contained Campylobacter and only one of the samples contained Salmonella. The Salmonella was recovered from a drain that was not accessed by cows and as there was only a single isolate it may have been derived from a wild animal and not a dairy cow. In contrast there were five recoveries of Campylobacter and four of these were from the drain to which cows had direct access. Three of the four were obtained on the single day in the study period when recent access by cows to the drain coincided with water flowing in the drain. All Campylobacter recovered were identified as C. jejuni, the species responsible of the campylobacteriosis disease in humans.

The results of this study support direct access by cows to drains as a probable source of Campylobacter in rural streams. However, the hot dry conditions that persisted throughout most of the study period prevented a satisfactory investigation of the importance of other routes of transport of pathogens into rural streams, such as overland flow of faecal material after rainfall.

During the period of the study the majority of samples collected from the streams into which the farm drains flowed (measured in the parallel FoRST study) were positive for Campylobacter. The stream results together with those from the FRM451 study suggest that Campylobacter can be sourced from dairy farms.

Publications

Donnison, A., Ross, C., Muirhead, R. (2001): Pathways of Campylobacter transfer from farms into rural streams. Client Report prepared for MAF Policy, AgResearch, July 2001.

4.13 FRM 400

Programme Title: Review MAF roles with respect to microbiological contamination of freshwater, and its impacts
Programme Leader: Donald D McGregor
Institution: Consultant - Donald D McGregor

Summary

  • Human health is the chief reason for investigating and managing contamination of freshwater by pathogenic microorganisms.
  • The chief reason why MAF needs to be involved is because livestock, particularly cattle, are implicated in pathways of human infection.
  • There are a number of subsidiary reasons for MAF's involvement. Chief among these is perceptions that dairying practice in New Zealand is damaging to the environment, as well as to public health.
  • Out of this stems another reason for MAF's involvement, namely perceptions of risks to human health and the environment from on-farm food production threaten export markets. European retailers and the EU are responding to those public perceptions of risks.
  • The three-fold justification for MAF's involvement with microbiological contamination of freshwater is to respond to concerns about (1) risks to markets, (2) risks to the environment, and (3) risks to human health.
  • MoH has primary responsibility for addressing risks to human health, and MfE primary responsibility for the environment. There is a case for MAF Policy to accord its priority to addressing economic risks, especially those to market access. As noted in chapter 5, Market Access, there is almost no information on the economic risks, costs and benefits (that flow from uncontaminated freshwater) related to agriculture. It is uniquely MAF's responsibility to undertake that kind of investigation; and it is a type of study that MAF does well.
  • MAF has a responsibility in relation to management of livestock and agricultural land, and their impacts on microbiological contamination of freshwater. MfE also has a direct interest in this area, particularly in relation to regional councils and their development and implementation of regional plans. MfE expressed a willingness to co-operate with MAF in this area. MAF should continue to work actively in partnership with MfE in the area of sustainable agriculture.
  • It is difficult to isolate MAF's roles and responsibilities from those of other agencies, when considering pathways of pathogens through the environment. This was recognised in the joint MAF/MfE/MoH bid to the DCRP for "Identification of the Pathways of Microbiological Contamination of Freshwater". A multi-pronged, multidisciplinary, multi-agency approach is required. There is good justification for re-submitting a revised bid to the DCRP.
  • Ecosystem modelling is a worthwhile approach to the complex issues of understanding environmental pathways of pathogens. Modelling often reveals where the important knowledge gaps are, and which gaps may be less critical in terms of the total picture. A problem of relying solely on a bottom-up approach of patiently piecing together bits of the jigsaw, is that forming a coherent picture can be a difficult and slow process.

Background

This review focuses on issues and options for MAF Policy, what its priorities might be, and how they might be achieved, with respect to microbiological contamination of freshwater. Thirty-three people from government departments, regional councils, agricultural organisations, and research institutes were interviewed. Material gathered from the interviews, as well as from an in-house MAF workshop, contributed significantly to this discussion paper.

The key issue for MAF is "what are the links between agriculture and human enteric zoonotic disease?"

Approach & Outcomes

This discussion paper reviews the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry's (MAF) roles with respect to microbiological contamination of freshwater, and its impacts. It focuses on issues and options for MAF Policy, what its priorities might be, and how they might be achieved.

The process followed in compiling this paper was firstly, to identify, in conjunction with MAF Policy, people to interview. Thirty-three people were interviewed between April and July 2001. An in-house MAF workshop, held on 11 May 2001, helped guide the directions taken by the review. Material gathered from the interviews, as well as from the workshop, contributed significantly to this discussion paper. The main body of the report is presented in four chapters: Pathways, Sustainable Resource Use, Market Access, and Process. Each of these chapters has a similar format: Background, Issues, and Options. The final chapter, Conclusions, draws together and discusses some of the key issues.

4.14 FRM 404

Programme Title: Disbudding & dehorning
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Summary

The recommendations for consideration are:

  • That polled beef cattle breeds be used whenever possible and that polled cattle be selected for amongst horned breeds.
  • That all dairy calves be disbudded by cautery rather than amputation and be disbudded rather than be dehorned.
  • That local anaesthetic be used at all times but especially when cattle are disbudded or dehorned by amputation.
  • That systemic analgesia be used whenever possible. Cauterising the wound after amputation dehorning is useful short-term analgesic strategy when combined with local anaesthetic.

Background

During the last decade a considerable amount of research has been done on disbudding and dehorning distress in calves. As a result the literature on this is significant, but it has not yet been drawn together to provide an overview of current knowledge. Over the same period concern about such practices has risen, providing a further stimulus for such an evaluation.

Approach & Outcomes

This project involved an extensive literature review to combine the research efforts undertaken over the years into one concise document for MAF Policy.

4.15 FRM 405

Programme Title: Animal welfare on organic dairy farms in New Zealand
Programme Leader: Professor David Mellor
Institution: Massey University

Summary

Organic farms are not low input farms. Some of the inputs on organic farms may be different from conventional farms but the level of management on the former must be very high to maintain good animal welfare, as there are fewer safety nets available to the organic farmer.

Background

There is increasing interest in the consumption of food produced under organic conditions. This will pressure conventional farms and those processing conventional products to move towards organic methods and approaches. Although organic farming has always existed, there has been little scientific assessment of how organic farmers prevent and treat animal health related welfare problems. It is now appropriate to review literature and identify aspects of animal welfare, which are likely to be compromised by organic systems of management.

Approach & Outcomes

The project has the following objectives:

  1. to gather and critically evaluate the available literature;
  2. to describe the regulations governing the accreditation of organic/biodynamic dairy farms in New Zealand;
  3. to consider how these regulations limit the ability of farmers to prevent and treat animal health and related welfare problems in their dairy herds;
  4. to describe the strategies employed by organic/biodynamic dairy farmers to prevent and treat animal health and related welfare problems;
  5. to identify areas requiring further research.

The few observational studies on organic farms show that health problems are no worse on organic farms than on conventional farms but that productivity is much lower both per hectare and per cow on the former. The use of conventional preventative management techniques, which exclude antibiotics and anthelmintics, seem to succeed. However antibiotics and anthelmintics can act, as safety nets for poor management and as organic farmers do not have these safety nets available they must have very good management to prevent disease outbreaks.

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Farm Monitoring Programme Manager
Monitoring and Evaluation
MAF Policy
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Phone: +64 4 894 0623
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