3. Facilitating Resource Management Category

3.1 FRM 490

Programme Title:

Riparian attenuation of faecal microbes

Programme Leader:

Dr Rob Collins

Institution:

NIWA, Hamilton

Summary

Recent NZ research has demonstrated a high –prevalence of Campylobacter in pastoral animals and shown that Campylobacter is frequently found in rivers and streams draining farmland. Campylobacter and other faecal micro-organisms shed by grazing animals can be transported to waterways by surface runoff during rainfall events. One potential means of reducing contamination of streams by this process is through the use of riparian buffer strips (RBS). The dense vegetation associated with RBS theoretically acts to reduce the momentum of surface runoff causing entrapment of constituents within it. Understanding of the behaviour of RBS with respect to the entrapment of faecal microbes is, however, limited. For example, it is now known if, once microbes are trapped within a RBS, whether they die-off or are simply washed out (to waterways) in subsequent rainfall events.

Goal:

To assess the effectiveness of riparian buffer strips in attenuating faecal microbes.

Approach & Outcomes

The study objectives were achieved through a series of plot experiments whereby farm dairy effluent was flushed into sloping grass strips by surface runoff (generated by hosed water at the top of each plot). Outflow at the lower end of a plot was sampled for microbial analysis, providing insight to the entrapment of Campylobacter and Escherichia.coli. Follow-up experiments on the same plots (a few days later) involved the application of water only to examine the retention of Campylobacter in a subsequent runoff event.

It is important to note that surface runoff generated during these experiments was comparable with that during heavy and prolonged rainfall. The experiments therefore represent a ‘worse-case’ (minimum trapping) scenario. Results from these experiments relate to bacteria in liquid wastes and may not apply to relatively dry faecal material.

The results indicate that:

  1.  When liquid farm dairy wastes were injected over 2-3 minutes onto saturated pasture soils, irrigated to generate surface runoff, there was a rapid ‘first flush’ of high Campylobacter and E. coli for at least 5 m downslope. When effluent injection stopped (but surface runoff continued) concentrations typically decreased by 2-4 orders of magnitude over 40-60 minutes.
  2. Back ground (prior to effluent application) bacteria levels in surface runoff were <3(Campylobacter) and 103-105 (E.coli)MPN/100 mL.
  3. When surface runoff stopped. Outflow Campylobacter concentrations were consistently higher than background concentrations, indicating that not all the Campylobacter applied had been flushed out of the plots. E. coli concentrations returned to background levels during the experiment.
  4. We were unable to estimate Campylobacter retention accurately because of the imprecision associated with the 3-tube MPN analysis.
  5. A comparison between short grass ‘grazed’ and long grass ‘riparian’ plots showed grass length had no apparent impact on the retention of bacteria. A grass length effect may occur with lower runoff but this was not tested in these experiments.
  6. Plot length (a comparison of 1 and 5 m long plots) affected: outflow rate, time to peak concentration, and (for Campylobacter only) the peak concentration. This has implications for the optimal width of riparian buffers strips.
  7. Surface runoff 5-12 days after the initial experiments did not remobilise significant numbers of retained Campylobacter. It is not clear whether this is because of die-off, flushing in subsurface drainage, retention onto soil particles, or some combination of these processes. This result suggests that once trapped, Campylobacter are not readily re-entrained in subsequent (and large) flow events, providing these occur at least a few days later.

PUBLICATIONS

To be published on the MAF website as a MAF technical report.

3.2 FRM 491

Programme Title:

Developing silvicultural guidelines for the sustainable management of indigenous forests on private land

Programme Leader:

Dr Rob Allen

Institution:

Landcare Research

Summary

This project considered how to assess landscapes for developing silvicultural systems, consistent with the principles of ecosystem management, which allow high-value timber production from indigenous species under the Forests Act and so support rural communities and development. The research derived approaches to ecological site classification relevant to forest management on individual properties. The study used as a basis the criteria and goals in the MAF standards and guidelines document for sustainable management of indigenous forests. The approach taken involved defining goals and criteria; describing variation in the ecological drivers operating at large spatial scales but which are relevant to management of individual properties; considering processes operating at an individual property scale relevant to achieving sustainable management criteria; and describing how a site classification can be developed for individual properties.

Site classifications are valuable for forest managers because they provide a framework within which to structure forest management operations. The composition, structure and functioning of a forest on any site result from the influence of a variety of factors operating across a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. A property level site classification should take account of the range of factors driving variability in forest ecosystems. Different approaches can be taken to site classification: using existing general environmental classifications; matching

Local or regional level detailed knowledge to a specific property; or detailed analyses of property level data.

Goal:

Assessing landscapes to develop silvicultural systems, consistent with the principles of ecosystem management, which allow high-value timber production from indigenous species under the Forests Act and so support rural communities and development.

Background

This research derives an approach to ecological site classification relevant to forest management on individual properties. The rationale for this site classification work is that achieving sustainability criteria on individual properties will require site-specific knowledge and management protocols. The site-specific knowledge is based upon an understanding of those factors driving changes in structure, composition, and functioning of forests as well as the implications for silvicultural systems. The work expands upon three detailed studies previously undertaken for MAF, as well as a more general synthesis of silvicultural and ecological information.

Approach & Outcomes

  • This study uses as a basis the criteria and goals in the MAF standards and guidelines document for sustainable management of indigenous forests. The approach taken involved:
  • Defining goals and criteria considered in subsequent sections of the report.
  • Describing variation in the ecological drivers operating at large spatial scales but which are relevant to management of individual properties.
  • Considering processes operating at an individual property scale relevant to achieving sustainable management criteria.
  • Describing how a site classification can be developed for individual properties.

· Site classifications are valuable for forest managers because they provide a framework within which to structure forest management operations. Classification are necessary because most forests are not uniform in terms of, for example, species composition, growth rates and regeneration patterns, and therefore the application of a uniform management approach across the whole property is unlikely to result in achieving management goals for all parts of a property.

· The composition and structure of a forest at any one place result from the influence of a variety of factors operating across a wide range of temporal and spatial scales. On the largest scales ( millions of years and km2 )factors such as evolution, continental drift and global climate change have played a key role in filtering which species occur. At medium scales (1000s of years, and national – regional spatial scales), factors such as latitudinal and altitudinal temperature gradients, and rainfall gradients are important. While on smaller scales still (<1000 years and 100s of hectares or less) factors such as substrate fertility and wetness have a strong influence. Overlaying these site-based influences, is disturbance ranging from catastrophic vulcanism and earthquake at large spatial and temporal scales through to the wind-throw of a single tree at the smallest scales, including the influence of human forest clearance.

· Different approaches can be taken to site classification. One is to use existing general environmental classifications. While these systems are readily available and provide an objective approach to classification, they are often at too coarse a scale for practical application to individual properties and do not cover the full range of factors that may be important on a property. Second method is matching local or regional level detailed knowledge to a specific property. This method could be widely applied in sustainable management plans because it can capture factors relevant on a specific property yet does not require intensive field sampling and data analyses. Finally, the most robust method is likely based upon detailed analyses of property level data. Such analyses increase our understanding of property level variability and also provide a quantitative measure of how predictive the classification is for an individual property.

3.3 FMR 492

Programme Title:

Low impact eco-silviculture

Programme Leader:

Dr Susan Wiser

Institution:

Landcare Research

Summary

The project aims to monitor a set of operational research trials on low-impact eco-silviculture in beech forest, Westland. Tree health and the state of pinhole beetle damage was assessed. Subplots along transects were remeasured to assess dynamics of saplings and trees, and understorey subplots were remeasured to assess dynamics of herbaceous plants and woody seedlings. The total area of each coupe and control transect was surveyed for all plant species, making special note of the presence of invasive weeds.

Growth responses of edge trees following harvesting was species specific. At Granville Forest both hard beech and kamahi grow faster on coupe edges than in closed forest. At Station Creek, silver beech grows faster on coupe edges, but red beech do not. At all small-coupe trials, rates of pinhole borer infection of edge trees are approximately 20% at Granville and Station Creek and less than 1% at Glenhope. At Station Creek, infection rates have been stable since 1998, whereas at Granville there was a surge in infection in 2001. Beech regeneration is ample at all sites. The rate of compositional change is slowing, as is the rate of invasion by new adventive weeds. At Glenhope, adventive weeds were only observed on the fertile sites supporting red-silver beech.

Background

This report presents the results of monitoring of the small coupes and group-selection trials at Station Creek and Glenhope from 1995 to 2002.

Approach & Outcomes

Specific objectives for 2002 at Station Creek and Glenhope were to:

  • Assess edge-tree health and state of pinhole beetle damage.
  • Remeasure contiguous subplots (10 x 10m) along transects, to assess dynamics of saplings and trees.
  • Remeasure contiguous understorey subplots (0.5 x 1m) along the transects, to assess dynamics of herbaceous plants and woody seedlings.
  • Survey the total area of each coup e and control transect for all plant species, making special note of the presence of invasive weeds.
  • Growth responses of edge trees following harvesting were found to be species specific. At Granville Forest, both hard beech and kamahi grow faster on coupe edges, but red beech does not. This contrasts to patterns of regeneration following harvesting, where red beech regenerates much more rapidly than silver beech.
  • At all small-coupe trials, pinhole borer infection rates of edge trees are about 20% at Granville and Station Creek and less than 1% at Glenhope. At Station Creek, infection rates have been stable since 1998, whereas at Granville there was a surge in infection in 2001. There is still ongoing mortality of edge trees at both Granville and Station Creek, although mortality rates are low. Mortality is still higher for trees that were damaged during harvesting. This shows that the legacy of poor harvesting practices can last at least 8 years.
  • Beech regeneration is ample at all sites, despite the presence of species such as crown fern and water fern, which have been observed to interfere with regeneration elsewhere, and also despite the presence of adventive species
  • On the small-coupes, the rate of compositional change is slowing, as is the rate of invasion by new adventive weeds. Still adventive weeks are more abundant and persistent at Station Creek than at Granville. This contrast in invasibility, with the more fertile site being more readily invaded than the less fertile site, was observed within the Glenhope property as well. At Glenhope, adventive weeds were only observed on the fertile sites supporting red-silver beech.

PUBLICATIONS

Brignall-Theyer, M; S,; Benecke, U.; Baker, G. 2002. Progress report for group-selection research trials in beech forests of Station Creek and Glenhope, Westland-2002. Landcare Research unpublished report LC0102/129.

Presentation at Indigenous Forestry Unit (MAF) workshop, Maruia, March 2002.

3.4 FRM 493

Programme Title:

Welfare impacts of vertebrate poisons

Programme Leader:

Dr Cheryl O’Connor

Institution:

Landcare Research

Summary

In order to use the most humane pest control methods, we need to be able to evaluate their humaneness. This requires an assessment of the potential welfare compromise caused by each poison. From key welfare assessment principles, we created a list of the essential behavioural, physiological and pathological measures required for assessing the welfare impact of vertebrate poisons. We provide a process for assessing the relative humaneness of poisons by considering the capacity of the target animal to suffer; the mode of action of the poison, and the type, intensity and duration of the main unpleasant effects; then making an assessment on the degree of welfare compromise caused by each effect; before finally comparing the type, degree and duration of welfare compromise between poisons.

Goal:

To ensure the use of humane methods for vertebrate pest control.

Background

To eradicate Tb from New Zealand’s livestock and feral vectors, and to protect our native fauna and flora, poisons and traps remain essential for vertebrate pest control in New Zealand. We have an ethical duty, however, to use the most humane control methods available and continue to develop more humane methods. The development of draft NAWAC guidelines (based on the ISO standard) has provided an objective process for assessing traps using pathological (e.g. physical injuries) and physiological (e.g. brain stem reflexes) measures. The lack of such guidelines for the assessment of poisons is addressed by this project.

Approach & Outcomes

Our previous research (FRST C09X0009) had assessed the behavioural, biochemical, and pathological changes in possums following poisoning with cyanide, 1080, phosphorus, cholecalciferol or brodifacoum. We used this research, along with information from the literature, to identify some key welfare assessment principles. From these key principles, we described a 5-step process, created a list of the essential behavioural, physiological and pathological measures required for assessment of the welfare impact of vertebrate poisons and identified how they could be used to assess the humaneness of poisons.

The welfare impact of vertebrate poisons can be assessed by a five-step process:

  • Consider the capacity of the species to suffer
  • Anticipate likely effects of the poison
  • Determine the type, intensity and duration of effects, and the percentage of animals affected
  • Determine the degree of welfare compromise caused by each effect
  • Assess the humaneness of the poison

The unpleasant effects caused by vertebrate poison are determined by closely observing the behaviour and pathology of poisoned animals.

PUBLICATIONS

Warburton, B.: Littin, K.; O’Connor, C. 2002: Animal welfare and vertebrate pest control in New Zealand. Presented at Animal welfare and behaviour: from science to solution conference (to be published in Applied Behaviour Science).

3.5 FRM 494

Programme Title:

Effectiveness of Timms Traps for Killing Possums

Programme Leader:

Bruce Warburton

Institution:

Landcare Research

Summary

The Timms kill traps is designed specifically for killing possums, and is manufactured by KBL Rotational Moulders (Palmerston North). It is the most popular kill trap used in New Zealand for capturing possums. Landcare Research Lincoln, assessed the killing effectiveness of this device for the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in June 2002.

Goal:

To determine if the Timms trap passes the NAWAC trap-testing guidelines, by assessing the time taken for the trap to render possums irreversibly unconscious.

Background

Three mechanical parameters were measured – striking jaw velocity, impact momentum, and clamping force – at jaw spacings of 10 and 20 mm. Observations were made of 15 possums being trapped in the Timms traps, with time to unconsciousness (loss of palpebral reflex) recorded.

Approach & Outcomes

The Timms trap has low clamping force (49 and 58 Newtons at 10 and 20 mm jaw spacings, respectively) and impact momentum (0.708 and 0.692 kg.m/s at 10 and 20 mm spacings). 13 of the 15 possums were rendered unconscious in less than 3 min, with a mean time to loss of palpebral reflex of 86.5 s. One possum escaped and the other took 4 min 20 s to be rendered unconscious.

Bait position is critical to aligning the possum in the Timms trap such that it is struck optimally by the striking bar. If a possum triggers the trap while its head is rotated to get the bait, the resulting lateral strike will not result in a quick kill and there is a possibility of the animal escaping.

Because one animal escaped, the Timms trap failed to meet the test requirement that all animals from a sample of 15 be rendered unconscious within 5 min. However, it did not appear to incur significant injury, and was later observed to return to the trap, trigger it, and die.

The Timms trap should not be recommended for prohibition providing the manufacturer of the traps (KBL Rotational Moulders):

Modifies the trigger to ensure baits are aligned horizontally

Increases the spring tension such that the clamping force of the striking bar on a possum’s neck is at least 10 kg in the information sheet provided with the traps, include and highlight the need for the bait to be aligned horizontally on the trigger.

NAWAC should contact KBL Rotational Moulders to ensure the above recommendation is implemented.

NAWAC should review the trap-testing guidelines and consider how escapes are treated.

3.6 FRM 495

Programme Title:

Animal Health and Welfare on Lifestyle Blocks and hobby farms

Programme Leader:

Peter Kerr

Institution:

Agriculture New Zealand

Summary

The report sought to identify factors and recommend strategies that will promote improved animal health and welfare outcomes on lifestyle blocks.

This was achieved by reviewing the general lifestyler environment as well as current animal welfare issues, carrying out a survey of lifestylers and then conducting focus groups in order to gain a better understanding of lifestyler attitudes to animal welfare. Seven recommendations were made as a result.

The reports found that generally animal health outcomes on lifestyler blocks are good and the present enforcement system is adequate. Lifestylers have access to a wide range of generic information about animal management and welfare, but finding out information or knowledge specific for their particular property appears to be a challenge. One finding of the report was that a lack of understanding of lifestyler location and animal types could be nationally disadvantageous in the event of an exotic disease outbreak.

Goal:

To identify the factors that lead to reduced animal welfare and health on lifestyle blocks and to recommend strategies that will promote animal health and welfare and result in fewer animal welfare concerns and complaints.

Background

Approximately 35% of all animal welfare complaints received by MAF’s enforcement agency concern lifestyle blocks. However, very little is known about lifestylers in general, or their attitudes towards animal welfare. In order to deliver improved lifestyler animal welfare outcomes, a study and report is required about where they obtain animal management information and knowledge, and how they might be targeted to improve overall animal welfare results.

Approach & Outcomes

Three separate components made up the final report:

  1. Review of the Current Animal Welfare Issues
  2. Survey of Lifestyle Block Owners and Hobby Farmers
  3. Focus Group

Based on these three interlinked components, a series of recommendations was produced.

The reports found:

  • Lifestyler attitudes to animal welfare are good and outcomes quite acceptable. The present monitoring and enforcement activities should be maintained.
  • Veterinarians are the most trusted and respected source of animal welfare and management information – though this most especially tends to be in emergency or chronic situations.
  • Lifestylers have access to a wide range of generic information about animal welfare and management. However, specific information (e.g. what this particular block’s carrying capacity, what will be its most difficult time of year) is difficult to obtain.
  • There appears to be a lack of servicing of lifestylers. Potentially, because lifestylers are often time poor but comparatively rich, the market is waiting to be properly served.
  • Lifestyler awareness of Animal Welfare regulations or the Codes of Recommendations and Minimum Standards is generally quite low.
  • There appears to be a lack of information and resource around lifestyler location and animal resources. This could be nationally disadvantageous should an exotic disease ever break out in New Zealand.

3.7 FRM 496

Programme Title:

Analgesic best practice for the use of animals in research and testing –an interpretive international literature review

Programme Leader:

Mr John Schofield

Institution:

University of Otago, Dunedin

Summary

The review of recent advances in pain control provides new information for researchers and Animal Ethics Committees in the use of best-practice analgesic techniques when working with laboratory animals. From a comprehensive literature review a set of 15 recommendations have been provided.

Goal:

To review advances in analgesia for laboratory animals used in research and testing and to revise recommendations and guidelines for good practice using animals in research.

Background

The project was undertaken as one of the operational research topics for 2001/2002. The use of analgesia for laboratory animals does not currently follow standard veterinary practice and these guidelines will assist researchers comply with the animal welfare requirements of the Animal Welfare Act 1999. No work was undertaken prior to this project.

Approach & Outcomes

A standard Medline literature search was used to identify appropriate research papers in this area. These were copied and reviewed in detail. From this body of information some key strategies were developed on which to base the guidelines.

The research identified that recent advances in pain control are covered by 4 major headings; pre-emptive analgesia, multimodal drug therapy, local and regional analgesia and new molecules. Each of these headings was discussed in detail. Three tables were included to cover (1) A comparative review of vaccination and pre-emptive analgesia, (2) Drug combinations used for local or regional pain control and (3) Manipulations for which local or regional anaesthesia can be used in addition to general anaesthesia. A set of 15 key recommendations was provided. Two diagrams are included, one provides key information on the sites of action of analgesic drugs, the other describes ‘the analgesic circle’. Both are novel visual aids, not previously published, and are included to assist the reader understand the concepts of pain control. The paper includes 122 scientific references.

3.8 FRM 497

Programme Title:

Potential implications of land use change towards intensive cattle grazing on rolling and hilly land

Programme Leader:

Dr Alec Mackay

Institution:

NZ Pastoral Research Institute Ltd

Summary

Thirty sheep and beef livestock producers on rolling and hill land in the summer dry Central Hawke’s Bay and summer moist Rangitikei regions of the North Island were contacted and in one on one interviews information was collected on the changes in their cattle policies over the last 5-10 years and likely future changes. Their assessment of the impact of the current cattle policy on soil erosion, soil and pasture damage was also recorded, as was the current management actions taken to limit any negative impacts. Comment was also sought on the long-term impacts of future intensification on the environment. Quantitative information on the impact of intensive cattle treading on the soil and pasture resource was assessed on nine of the survey farms in the two regions in the late winter and spring of 2001.

With the exception of two, all participants in the survey assessed the short-term impact of their current cattle policy on the soils and pastures in the farm as minimal. None of the participants had attempted to quantify the loss in pasture production following treading damage. Twenty-four of the 30 participants in the survey intend to continue with intensification of their cattle policies. Half the participants in each group believed that more could be done to reduce the impacts of current practice and more would need to be done with continued intensification. Most participants identified increased knowledge as a critical success factor for the future. Of the measurements made producers were familiar with pasture cover and soil fertility status, but not those used for assessing soil or pasture damage. All nine survey farms showed evidence of soil and pasture damage following cattle grazing.

A number of recommendations are made including the need to develop resource material to assist landowners in quantifying the effect of treading damage using the “new tools” and in evaluating systems design and refining management practices. In addition the need for a more detailed analysis of long-term implications of ongoing intensification on the soils resource and wider environment has become urgent.

Goal:

Estimate the potential environmental implications resulting from landuse change towards intensive cattle grazing systems on rolling and hill landscapes.

Background

Little information exists on the changes in cattle policies on rolling and hill land over recent years and the impact of these on the environment.

Approach & Outcomes

Thirty producers representing intensive dairy bull beef finishing, through to traditional beef breeding cow operations farming sedimentary or volcanic soils on rolling and hill land in the summer dry Central Hawke’s Bay and summer moist Rangitikei regions of the North Island were contacted. In one on one interviews information was collected on the changes in their cattle policies over the last 5-10 years and likely future changes. Their assessment of the impact of the current cattle policy on soil erosion, soil and pasture damage was also recorded, as was the current management actions taken to limit any negative impacts. Comment was also sought on the long-term impacts of future intensification on the environment. Quantitative information on the impact of intensive cattle treading on the soil and pasture resource was assessed on nine of the survey farms in the two regions in the late winter and spring of 2001.

  1. With the exception of two, all participants in the survey assessed the short-term impact of their current cattle policy on the soils and pastures on the farm as minimal. Compared with the Central Hawke’s Bay group, direct negative treading effects on soil and pastures was regarded by the land owners in the Rangitikei District as more serious leading potentially to substantial loss of pasture production. None of the participants in either region had attempted to quantify the loss in pasture production following treading damage.
  2. Twenty-four of the 30 participants in the survey intend to continue with intensification of their cattle policies. All farms had or were in the active process of implementing on-farm “land management practices”.
  3. Half the participants in each group believed that more could be done to reduce the impacts of current practice and more would need to be done with continued intensification. Most participants identified increased knowledge as a critical success factor for the future. Time and money was identified as the barrier to gaining the additional knowledge. All participants indicated that the barrier to adoption could be reduced in situations where the dollar benefits of increased knowledge could be demonstrated.
  4. Of the measurements made producers were familiar with pasture cover and soil fertility status, but not those used for assessing soil or pasture damage. All nine survey farms showed evidence of soil and pasture damage following cattle grazing.
  5. A number of recommendations are made in the report. These include;
  • A structured survey to collect data on the actual changes in cattle numbers and stocking rates is required.
  • A more detailed analysis of the long-term implications of ongoing intensification on the soils resource and wider environment.
  • MAF Policy, in conjunction with the appropriate agencies, should assist in the development of resource material to assist landowners in quantifying the effect of treading damage using the “new tools” and in evaluating systems design and refining management practices.
  • Documentation on the relative merits of the management options currently available for managing treading effects on the farms is required with a focus on fundamental design and “fit” with the on-farm land resources.
  • A series of case studies, examining the costs and benefits of managing treading effects, would provide a guide to future land use practices and new information on what are sustainable cattle stocking policies and management for rolling and hill land.

3.9 FRM 498

Programme Title:

Developing management guidelines for pinhole borer in beech forests

Programme Leader:

Dr Eckehard Brookerhoff

Institution:

Forest Research

Summary

This study examined the effects of slash and stump treatments that are thought to reduce the risk of damage from pinhole borer beetles following selection harvesting of beech. For four years following harvesting in north Westland, treated and untreated slash and stumps were monitored for pinhole borer attack, emergence of beetles and wood conditions. To assess the potential impact of harvesting on the health of the remaining forest, trees around the coupe edges and in control plots were monitored, and the compartment-wide mortality was estimated.

By mid-2002, treatments had no great effect on moisture content, decay of slash, or beetle emergence, although the number of active borer tunnels that produced boring dust decreased more in treated than in untreated slash. Because there will be continuing emergence of beetles in the following years, it is not yet clear whether the treatments will eventually result in a decrease in pinhole borer emergence. The heavy and continuing attack of slash increases the likelihood of a build-up of pinhole borer populations. This could lead to increasing attack of healthy trees, and this has already occurred to some extent. Although long-term benefits of cutting slash cannot be ruled out, these are likely to be relatively minor in small harvest gaps. However, it is clear that cutting stumps as low to the ground as possible will contribute to reducing the build-up of pinhole borer populations. Monitoring the development of populations is recommended to enable a response to pinhole borer outbreaks that could potentially lead to dieback in the remaining forest.

Background

The sustainable management of New Zealand’s beech forests requires attention to the native pinhole borer beetles, Platypus spp. Harvesting or natural forest disturbance can lead to outbreaks of these beetles, which may result in mortality of healthy beech trees. To avoid such outbreaks, management prescriptions recommend the cutting of harvesting slash into 1-m pieces and the treatment of stumps with urea. This is thought to accelerate drying or decomposition processes, which would reduce the survival of pinhole borer brood. However, under the current forest management system of small harvest gaps that is now commonly practised, the effectiveness of slash and stump treatments has not been assessed. Furthermore, little information is available on the potential impact of pinhole borer in these conditions. These are important issues for the sustainable management of beech forests, especially those under private ownership where harvesting occurs.

Approach & Outcomes

The incidence of pinhole borer attack in treated and untreated slash and stumps has been monitored since November 1998 in eight experimental plots established shortly after harvesting of beech trees in small gaps (mean gap size ca. 0.04 ha) at Station Creek, Maruia Valley, north Westland. To obtain more detailed data on the breeding success and phenology of pinhole borer, emergence traps were installed over individual borer holes on treated and untreated slash and stumps. The effects of the treatments on moisture content and decay of slash samples were monitored. To assess the potential impact of harvesting on the health of the remaining forest, trees around the coupe edges and in control plots were monitored. The data were also used to estimate the compartment-wide mortality of beech trees.

Following harvesting in late 1998, there was a heavy attack by pinhole borer of nearly all slash sections and stumps. During the first two years, cutting slash and treating stumps did not result in reduced attack or reduced survival of pinhole borer. By mid-2002, there was neither an effect on moisture content or decay of slash, nor on the emergence of beetles. However, in 2000/2001 and 2001/2002, the number of tunnels producing boring dust was lower in treated than untreated slash. It is not yet clear whether this will also result in a decrease in pinhole borer emergence in the following years, because there is at least one more year of emergence of beetles originating from the initial attack. Furthermore, many new attacks have occurred in the past two years, coinciding with the emergence of beetles from this slash. Thus, the value of these treatments could still become apparent in the following years, although the new attacks were less severe than the initial attack. However, with continuing emergence of large numbers of beetles from this slash, as well as new attacks, there is the potential for a build-up of populations and further attack and increasing mortality of healthy trees. There was notable mortality of edge trees and particularly of trees in adjacent control plots, where four trees over 40 cm dbh died apparently as a result of pinhole borer attack. Overall about 6% of the monitored edge trees and about 5% of trees in control plots had died in the four years since harvesting, which effectively lead to considerable enlargement of some gaps. Extrapolated to the entire compartment, the observed mortality now almost matches that assumed by a stand model for this forest.

The slash and stump treatments have not yet shown any substantial benefits, but there is still a possibility for some longer-term effects. Although it is thus too early to make definitive management recommendations from this study, it is unlikely that long-term effects could be significant enough to warrant such treatments in small gaps of about 0.04 ha. Nevertheless, the study shows that substantial attack of slash and stumps by pinhole borer can occur and that there is a risk of attack and mortality of edge trees when large amounts of slash are available for breeding of pinhole borer.

  • On the basis of the results obtained to date on the effectiveness of cutting slash and treating stumps with urea, there does not appear to be any considerable reduction in pinhole borer attack or breeding success associated with these treatments.
  • It is possible that cutting slash could be more effective in larger harvesting areas where changes in microclimate are likely to accelerate drying of cut slash, but no such effect was observed in the small gaps of about 0.04 ha (mean size including edge trees ca. 0.07 ha) created by felling three or four trees which is the common situation in the kind of forest management that is the subject of this study.
  • Although long-term benefits of cutting slash cannot be ruled out because new attacks (in years 3 and 4 after harvest) were higher on uncut slash, these new attacks were less severe than the initial attack, suggesting that such possible long-term effects are likely to be relatively small.
  • Overall, it is clear that substantial attack by pinhole borer of slash and stumps can occur, and this can lead to considerable attack and mortality of residual stand trees. This damage could be exacerbated if more slash would be provided, which is likely to occur in this forest management system, where a small proportion of the trees will be harvested every few years. Given the large number of additional trees attacked by pinhole borer in the last year, more mortality can be anticipated.
  • To prevent such damage, particularly where the risk of attack is high such as in the Maruia Valley and other areas where there is a nigh proportion of senescent trees, it is important to implement preventative control methods. In the absence of any conclusive data on the value of slash treatments, we recommend:
  1. Special attention should be given to stumps because more beetles emerged from these than from slash. We propose that stumps be cut as low to the ground as possible to reduce the amount of material available for pinhole borer breeding. (In our opinion there is no clear evidence that any other stump treatment would be effective).
  2. Cutting stem and branch slash is not justified in small gaps (ca. 0.04 ha) (although benefits in larger harvest gaps cannot be ruled out). More successful alternatives to cutting slash should be explored.
  3. To enable a response to any outbreaks of pinhole borer that could potentially lead to dieback in the remaining forest, it is critical to monitor the development of pinhole borer populations after harvesting, for example by surveying attack rates of slash and edge trees and mortality caused by pinhole borer.

Although it was anticipated that most of the beetle brood from the first generation would have emerged by autumn 2002, there is still a large number of active tunnels of Platypus gracilis. We recommend this study be carried out for another year to enable the completion of monitoring (I) the emergence of pinhole borer and (ii) the mortality caused by the beetles. This study provides a unique opportunity to link the mortality of trees to attacks by pinhole borer or other causes. This has not been possible with previous monitoring programmes that usually assessed trees only every few years and may not have encountered such high borer populations. Management recommendations would then be based on a very short robust data set.

3.10 FRM 500

Programme Title:

Drainage Systems and Impacts

Programme Leader:

Dr Henry R Hudson

Institution:

Environmental Management Associates Ltd (EMA)

SUMMARY

As part of the development of an Agricultural Drain Management Manual, this work evaluated impacts of sediment management and excessive sediment on drainage systems, and reviewed the design, economic cost-benefit issues, management, and environmental benefits of in-channel sediment traps. An interim best-management-practice for in-channel coarse-sediment traps was developed. Long-term evaluation of several test traps, which will be constructed based on the best management practice, is proposed.

Goal:

This research is part of a wider complex research and investigation programme attempting to evaluate and categorise the impacts of drainage systems, and the economic and environmental benefits of sediment traps and other management practices.

BACKGROUND

Extensive land drainage has occurred in New Zealand requiring extensive and expensive ongoing drain management. Management has focused on routine in-channel maintenance, with little emphasis on: performance-based management measures; external factors governing drainage performance; the actual or potential habitat value of the drainage network; economic factors; and environmental effects. As part of a broader programme involving DOC, Regional and District Councils, MFE, Cawthorn, MAF, University of Canterbury, and EMA, a drainage management manual is being developed based on a synthesis of existing best practices. Management measures can be used to control inputs of sediments and contaminants into, and through, the drainage network and to maintain or enhance environmental aspects of drainage systems.

APPROACH & OUTCOMES

Sediment related problems, and the principles and design of in-channel sediment traps, were reviewed. Efficiency, economic cost-benefits, and environmental benefits of sediment trapping were evaluated based on the literature and local experience. In collaboration with Regional and District Councils, sites were identified, and preliminary designs and monitoring requirements for six new sediment traps in Canterbury and Southland were proposed. These sites will be used to evaluate and refine an interim guideline for in-channel coarse-sediment traps.

In-channel sediment traps can control movement of sediment downstream, reduce the frequency and extent of channel maintenance, and improve aquatic habitat. A diverse range of literature on in-channel sediment traps was reviewed and synthesised into a practical best-management-practice guideline. This guideline will assist landowners, contractors and drain managers to provide for drainage outfall, while minimising long-term costs, and maximising environmental benefits. Sites were identified, and a monitoring programme proposed, to evaluate the guidelines and performance of six instream sediment traps.

3.11 FRM 482

Programme Title:

Pain in livestock and Companion Animals

Programme Leader:

Dr Neville Gregory

Institution:

SARDI

Summary

The aim of this review was to improve awareness about the occurrence of pain in livestock and companion animals. Pain recognition, and understanding how pain occurs, are fundamental to managing a wide range of animal welfare problems. The review was prepared after consulting the veterinary and biomedical literature. A substantial amount of information came from experience and reports in humans. In the future, it is hoped that comparable information will be available from clinical experience that relates directly to livestock and companion animals. In this way, a stronger focus on pain recognition and management will develop in veterinary and animal science.

Goal:

Provide an interpretative review that will improve awareness of conditions where pain exists but tends to be disregarded; describes how different types of pain can be expressed; and offers guidance as to which forms of tissue injury are painful.

Background

We need clearer, more explicit, descriptions of the common causes of pain in livestock and companion animals. This project helped fill that need by describing when pain is likely to be present. This was achieved by reviewing the physiology of pain in a clinical and practical context, and by drawing on human experience as it related to similar conditions in other species.

Approach & Outcomes

This review identified, in a systematic manner, the types of pain that occur in animals, it put forward scientifically based explanations of how they occur physiologically, and gave examples of the types of pain that occur in particular contexts.

The review described the range of conditions where pain can occur, and it gave examples on how to recognise pain in animals. In many instances it may not be possible to avoid pain, but it should be possible to recognise when special care needs to be given because an animal is in pain. This review should be particularly valuable for people considering animal care and management, by broadening their outlook towards pain. It describes some common causes of pain, and discusses situations where one might assume that pain is present, but in fact is likely to be absent. The review discusses which types of trauma result in acute or immediate pain, and it describes the physiology of chronic forms of pain. It is hoped that it will be helpful in improving the understanding and recognition of pain in animals.

3.12 FRM 483

Programme Title:

Trauma in livestock, Companion Animals and Wildlife

Programme Leader:

Dr Neville Gregory

Institution:

SARDI

Summary

The aim was to review the major forms of trauma in livestock, companion animals and wildlife. This subject is important from the animal welfare perspective. The review made use of material published in the veterinary, animal science, wildlife science, and biomedical literature. The review included trauma involved in accidents, pest control methods, recreational hunting, routine husbandry methods involving surgery without anaesthesia, wartime injuries, aggression between animals, predation, self-mutilation, rodeo, horseracing, and greyhound racing. Some of the issues to do with the racing industries and recreational hunting may benefit from further examination, in terms of determining the prevalence of those forms of trauma in New Zealand, and in terms of developing standards which will help to minimise the trauma.

Goal:

Provide an interpretative review that will heighten awareness of trauma as a welfare issue, and will help direct future thinking on how the risks of injury should be managed.

Background

· Trauma is an under-reported aspect of animal welfare, and yet in many situations it is a severe type of welfare insult. Often as not it is accidental, and so it does not feature as a politically sensitive welfare problem, but this does not reduce its important to the affected animals. In other situations, trauma is an inevitable risk in everyday life, occurring in only a small proportion of animals, but it acquires political sensitivity if it is linked to an industry or enterprise that is being targeted for some other reason. Trauma, or removal of a body part without anaesthetic, can also be intentional and in this situation pain relief or developing alternative management strategies would be appropriate.

Approach & Outcomes

This review identified, in a systematic manner, the types of trauma that occur in animals, and put forward scientifically based explanations of the impacts they have, which influence suffering and survival.

The review examined some examples of accidental and intentional trauma in livestock, companion animals and wildlife. It described some of the pathophysiological features of trauma that underpin an understanding of the likely welfare compromises. It highlighted some issues that are important in animal welfare, and to the image of those who have responsibility or control over animals.

Some injuries are difficult to reconcile from an animal welfare perspective, because they seem to be either unfair or unnecessary. For example, in a study on recreational shooting, it was found that 14% of live wild ducks had shotgun pellets in their body tissues. Observations on red deer hunting showed that 11% of the deer needed more than one shot to kill them; 70% of the deer took more than two minutes to die, and about 2% of shot deer escaped.

Other injuries are a hazard of a particular farming system. For example, bone fragility and broken bones are inevitable consequences of modern egg production systems. Road accidents are an inevitable hazard for wildlife. Leg and foot injuries are inevitable consequences of competitive horse racing and greyhound racing. For the future, thought needs to be given on how injuries could be minimised. In some cases this should be made possible by understanding how the injuries occur, and understanding which situations increase the risk of injury. This review lays a path, by example, for developing that understanding.

PUBLICATIONS

Gregory, N.G. (2002) Animal welfare aspects of trauma caused by explosives and firearms (in press).

3.13 FRM 484

Programme Title:

Effectiveness of Timms Traps for killing feral cats

Programme Leader:

Bruce Warburton

Institution:

Landcare Research

Summary

This project determined if the Timms trap killed feral cats quickly enough to meet the NAWAC trap-testing guidelines. The trap was tested by observing the capture of feral cats, and then timing the loss of their palpebral reflex which had to be less than3 minutes to be acceptable. The trap successfully killed all 10 feral cats tested, and therefore met the requirements of the NAWAC guidelines

Goal:

To determine if the Timms trap is suitable for kill-trapping feral cats, by:

  • Measuring the trap’s striking bar velocity, clamping force, and impact momentum;
  • Assessing the time taken for the trap to render feral cats irreversibly unconscious.

Background

The Timms kill trap is designed specifically for capturing and killing possums, and is manufactured by KBL Rotational Moulders (Palmerston North). It is the most popular kill trap used in New Zealand for capturing possums, but is also used by some pest control contractors for capturing feral cats. Landcare Research, Lincoln, assessed the effectiveness of the Timms trap for killing feral cats, for the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in June 2002.

Approach & Outcomes

Three mechanical parameters of the trap were measured – striking jaw velocity, impact momentum, and clamping force – at jaw spacings of 10 and 20 mm. The killing effectiveness of the trap was then tested by setting them in a pen that housed a feral cat, and observing the capture. Once caught, the time to loss of the palpebral reflex was monitored.

The Timms trap has low clamping force (49 and 58 Newtons at 10- and 20-mm jaw spacings, respectively) and low impact momentum (0.708 and 0.692 kg/m/s at 10- and 20-mm jaw spacings). All of the 10 cats tested were rendered unconscious in less than 3 minutes, with a mean time to loss of palpebral reflex of 77 seconds.

3.14 FRM 484 (Extension)

Programme Title:

Evaluation of the effectiveness of four commercially available traps for killing ferrets

Programme Leader:

Bruce Warburton

Institution:

Landcare Research

Summary

This project determined if four commercially available traps kill ferrets quickly enough to meet the NAWAC trap-testing guidelines. The traps were tested by observing the capture of ferrets, and then timing the loss of their palpebral reflex, which had to be less than 3 minutes to be acceptable. All four trap types failed the test of their killing effectiveness.

Goal:

To determine if four commercially available traps currently used for trapping ferrets meet the NAWAC trap-testing guidelines by:

  • Measuring the striking jaw velocity, clamping force, and impact momentum of each trap;
  • Assessing the time taken for each trap to render ferrets irreversibly unconscious.

BACKGROUND

In New Zealand, ferrets (Mustela furo) are controlled for various reasons, and most control of this species is carried out using traps. Four kill traps are sold commercially, either specifically to control ferrets or to control several other species including ferrets. Landcare Research, Lincoln, assessed the killing effectiveness of four traps used for capturing ferrets, for the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in June 2002.

Approach & Outcomes

The four traps tested were the Timms, Timms tunnel, Tunnel, and SaF trap. Three mechanical parameters were measured – striking jaw velocity, impact momentum, and clamping force – at jaw spacings of 10 and 20 mm. The traps were then tested by setting them in a pen that housed a ferret, and observing the capture. Once caught, the time to loss of the palpebral reflex was monitored.

The impact momentums of the trap ranged from 0.417 kg.m/s for the Tunnel trap to 1.038 kg.m/s for the SaF trap. The Timms and Timms Tunnel had impact momentums of about 0.7 kg.m/s. The SaF trap also had the highest clamping force (129 Newtons) with the Tunnel trap having the lowest (28 Newtons).

All four trap types failed the test of their killing effectiveness with three of the traps failing to render the first three ferrets irreversibly unconscious. Only the Timms tunnel trap rendered one ferret irreversibly unconscious in 3 minutes.

3.15 FRM 485

Programme Title:

Effectiveness of chain-springs at reducing capture injuries

Programme Leader:

Bruce Warburton

Institution:

Landcare Research

Summary

This project aimed to determine the effect of chain-springs on the frequency and severity of injuries caused to captured possums. Possums were trapped in five trap treatments. Lanes-Ace traps with and without chain-springs, Victor No. 1 ½ traps with and without chain-springs, and Victor No.1 traps. A pathologist examined each captured limb and identified all trap-related injuries. Mean injury scores varied from a high of 94 possums captured in unmodified Lanes-Ace traps to 24 for those captured in Victor No.1 traps. Chain-springs significantly reduced injuries caused by Lanes-Ace and Victor No.1 ½ traps but they still caused significantly reduced injuries caused by Lanes-Ace and Victor No. 1 ½ traps but they still caused significantly more, or more severe, injuries than Victor No. 1 traps.

Goal:

To determine the effectiveness of chain-springs at reducing injuries to possums being captured in leghold traps, by:

  • assessing the frequency with which a range of injuries to possums being captured in traps with and without chain-springs, and
  • comparing the frequency and severity of injuries to possums caught in chain-spring-modified Lanes-Ace and Victor No 1 ½ traps with those of possums caught in unmodified Lanes-Ace. Victor No. 1 ½ traps, and Victor No. 1 traps.

Background

The Lanes-Ace and Victor No. 1 ½ leghold traps are to be recommended for prohibition because of the unacceptable level of injuries they cause to captured possums. However, an experienced trapper has suggested that injuries can be significantly reduced by adding a coil spring to the trap’s chain. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry therefore contracted Landcare Research to determine the extent to which the addition of a chain-spring reduced trap-induced injuries.

Approach & Outcomes

Thirty Lanes-Ace and 30 Victor No 1 ½ double coil-spring traps were used in the trial. Fifteen of each trap type were modified by fitting a spring between links on their chains. Fifteen unmodified Victor No. 1 traps were also used for comparison. Captured possums were killed quickly, and their captured limb removed for later inspection by pathologist who identified any capture-related traumas.

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