1.Facilitating Market Access Category
1.1 FMA 111
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Programme Title: |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
Crop & Food |
Summary
Our trading partners consider that soil associated with imported produce poses significant quarantine risks. New Zealand phytosanitary legislation, in relation to soil, is consistent with that of the international community, and generally consistent in application between product groups.
Background
Almost universally, there are import restrictions associated with soil. Examination of the potential biological components of soil and the underlying processes of distribution into the environment may improve our understanding of the risks associated with imported soil. The danger of soil attached to imported produce depends on the product group. For instance, soil attached to a commodity destined for consumption and prompt disposal is less likely to introduce a plant pest into new environs than soil on imported material that is to be planted for propagation. The disposal of imported soil-contaminated waste is another important consideration. Soil-contaminated products for domestic consumption produce many small parcels of waste compared with produce for processing, which produce waste in greater volumes that can be efficiently treated before disposal.
It is also necessary to consider the potential ecological risks that soils from different regions pose. For instance, soils from tropical regions containing pests that cannot survive in a temperate region are less threatening than soils from similar temperate ecosystems. This is also true when host types are considered. If a tropical pest has evolved with, and is nutritionally dependent on, a certain host type that cannot be found in a temperate region the risk is lower, even if the physical conditions are not limiting. In addition to finding a suitable host and climate there are the issues of longevity of soil-borne pests and duration of infectivity.
There is potential to develop a more rational view of soil as a quarantine risk focusing on the fate of the product at the end of the market chain rather than on the presence or absence of soil particles, or the ability to disinfect produce upon entry.
Approach
Review existing agreements and protocols relevant to the setting of risks that soil presents to trade.
Gain a comprehensive understanding of the current situation and identify key philosophical and technical reasons for soil being treated as a risk material.
Analyse importing country’s restrictions and identify inconsistencies relating to soil contamination of imported products for different product groups.
Develop a basis for an assessment protocol based on rational consideration of product fate dictating tolerance to soil as a contaminant.
Conclusions
Importation of soil is universally considered to have a serious quarantine risk, based on its potential to act as a vehicle for pests and diseases of plants (and animals). This is despite a paucity of technical justification to support such a standpoint.
The international quarantine regulations in relation to soil are remarkably similar (most likely due to adherence to the International Plant Protection Convention and the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures).
New Zealand phytosanitary legislation, in relation to soil, is consistent with that of the international community, and generally consistent in application between product groups.
A new rational approach to assessing the risk of soil contamination of imported produce is described with reference to the viewpoints of both the exporter and the biosecurity of the importing country, and end use of the commodity.
Analysis of the organisms of concern in relation to importation of soil show that nematodes and viruses transmitted by nematodes seem to be of primary concern.
1.2 FMA 113
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Programme Title: |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
Canesis |
Summary
To monitor the core body temperatures of animals during transport and relate increases to temperature and humidity conditions in the truck.
Background
There is increasing concern both within New Zealand and in our major overseas markets about the effects of transport of animals on their welfare. For example regulations have been recently promulgated in the European Community to ensure the minimum and maximum temperatures (adjusted for humidity) of the livestock are not exceeded, even on long journeys. This project described relationships between the duration of environmental temperature and humidity stress during transport and the body temperature response in sheep. Earlier studies in New Zealand had shown that temperature and humidity can rise rapidly inside stationary truck or trailer carrying sheep.
Approach & Outcomes
In summer, 4–6 monitor sheep were fitted with intra-vaginal data loggers to record their internal (core) body temperatures. These sheep were included in loads in a truck and trailer fitted with temperature/humidity measuring devices to monitor environmental conditions inside the pen containing these monitor sheep and outside the trailer. The data from the two sets of measuring devices were compared to assess when environmental conditions resulted in stress as defined as increased core body temperature. There were three runs of truck and trailer loads of sheep transported around areas in the South Island of New Zealand and in a shed trial designed to mimic the effects of a Cook Strait ferry crossing.
Outcomes
This project was originally intended to be carried out in 2003/2004 relying on the cooperation of Ryal Bush Transport from their Ashburton depot. Four truck runs were carried out before the trailer fitted with the temperature sensors was off the road for several weeks for repair, preventing the project from being completed. In addition, February 2004 was very cool. The data collected provided no information on the effects of heat stress on animals during transport, and the project was carried over to 2004/2005. Three truck runs and the shed trial were completed in 2004/2005. As the intravaginal data loggers used were too large to fit into lambs or maiden two tooth ewes, adult ewes with approximately 40 mm wool length were used for all trials.
Diuscussion
When the truck and trailer were in the shed, the temperature in the trailer rose rapidly to 36–39°C – 12–13°C higher than ambient – and remained there for some time. The relative humidity was 100%. THI was greater than 80 in the pen for this time. The temperature and THI in the pen rapidly decreased once the truck and trailer were removed from the shed and were close to ambient within half an hour. For most of the three truck runs the differences in temperature between inside the pen and outside were relatively small – generally up to 4°C, although occasionally up to 7°C and the THI reached greater than 80 on only one occasion.
In the shed trial the largest increase in body temperature (average 0.5°C; range 0.4–0.6°C) occurred while loading the animals. Body temperatures began to rise while the truck and trailer were in the shed but returned rapidly to normal once the truck was moving. Other observations suggested the sheep were stressed while in the shed. This stress was insufficient to cause a rise in body temperature. Overall, there were no increases in average body temperature for the sheep on any of three truck runs. However, there were some suggestions of rises in body temperature on some occasions when the loaded truck and trailer were standing or the sheep were being loaded or unloaded.
Summary
The project successfully monitored the body temperatures of sheep during transport and during a “mock” crossing of Cook Strait. The sheep were not under marked heat stress for any great lengths of time. Although there was a small response in body temperature when the THI was over 80 for over three hours, this stress was insufficient to cause a marked rise in sheep body temperature. There was little evidence of heat stress on any of the animals during the truck runs even though these lasted up to over 14 hours. The sheep crates used had considerable scope for ventilation at about sheep head level. Ventilation of other more closed designs may be less effective than for these crates. Consequently the temperature and humidity (and hence THI) in such crates may increase more rapidly and to higher levels than observed here and cause greater degrees of heat stress.
The weather during both summers of this project was relatively cool. The degrees of heat stress observed may have been less than typical especially when sheep being transported are subjected to hot sunlight for lengths of time and when the truck is stationary.
These trials indicate that during transport in New Zealand in the 2003/04 and 2004/05 summers the sheep studied were not subjected to temperature stress, as measured by core body temperature rise. The trials over two summers created and monitored typical scenarios as nearly as possible. As a result of atypically low summer temperatures, sheep crate design and transport company protocols, stress during transport was negligible.
Publications
Reid, T C; Urquhart, R A; Stewart, M; Matthews, L (2005) Effects of temperature and humidity on sheep stress during transport. Canesis Client Report CLR 05/23. June 2005. Report on project to MAF.
1.3 FMA 114
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Programme Title: |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
Massey University |
Goal
To develop three models to investigate the cost of improving animal welfare; the use of analgesic for dehorning, maintaining body condition scores in dairy cows from autumn to spring, the cost of increased management of lambing.
Background
Opinions on the cost of improving animal welfare on farms vary. This project investigates the cost of improving animal welfare, in three different ways, on farms in New Zealand
Approach & Outcomes
Use of analgesic during castration: Currently, castration is routinely carried out on farms without the use of anaesthetic, using on-farm labour only. Three other scenarios, including use of local anaesthetic (LA), LA plus a systemic analgesic, and castration by a veterinarian, were compared to the status quo.
Body condition score (BCS) in dairy cattle: Modelling of feed intake, BCS and costs was undertaken. The model used was based on a New Zealand dairy farm with a Friesian Jersey crossbreed mixed herd based in the Manawatu area, where the cost of grass is 15 cents per kilogram of drymatter and condition scores range from 3 to 6. The price of the milk is set at $4.00 per kilogram of milksolids. The model was produced by Ian Brookes of Massey University. The model is built around three main factors; the cost of the additional feed, increased milk production and the improved reproductive performance obtained from an increase in condition score. It is difficult to distinguish between what is required for maintenance, base milk production and the additional milk production gained from increasing a condition score. The model cow loses weight during early lactation as more of the feed intake is going to milk rather than maintenance as the cow is presently in a good condition (Holmes et al., 2002). The condition score is put back on during later lactation or during the non-lactation period depending on the amount of feed being fed to the cow.
Increased management of lambing: To benefit from the increase in fecundity in sheep flocks farmers have to ensure that mortality rates of twin and triplet lambs are kept low. This requires a number of management practices including appropriate management at birth. An increase in the frequency of surveillance during lambing is a cost and this has to be measured against the potential benefit of reduced ewe and lamb mortality. The model used included costs and returns for flocks with different lambing percentages, different lambing beat frequencies and different lamb mortality rates, and with fixed costs for shepherding. The model simulated pasture growth and flock energy requirement on a daily basis over a one-year period for a traditional lambing system and calculates gross margins. The model was run for a 200 hectare farm using average Manawatu pasture growth rates, with ewes set to consume 11000 kg DM/ha of pasture per year. Simulations were conducted for different lambing beat frequencies (0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 times daily), different average number of lambs per ewe lambed (1, 1.5 and 2) and for different lambs growth rates (0.2, 0.25 and 0.3 kg /d for single lambs). The model did not take into account improved ewe survival.
Outcomes
Castration of calves: Castration on-farm with local anaesthetic cost almost six times the current costs, largely because of the $1/calf cost of anaesthetic. Greater proportionate cost increases occurred with the use of LA and an analgesic (almost 20 times more than the status quo). Where vets were required costs were 45 times greater than the status quo, of which 57% were vet-related labour, call out and travel costs. Although costs per calf were considerably higher where anaesthetic and/or vets were required, costs per head relative to returns were still low. Status quo cost of castration = $10.47 per farm, $0.28 per calf. Castration with local anaesthetic = $58.31 per farm, $1.56 per calf. Castration with Keptoprofen plus anaesthetic = $203.72 per farm, $5.45 per calf. Castration by vet = $464.90 per farm, $12.44 per calf.
Body condition score in dairy cattle Increasing body condition score was most economic if done during lactation rather than during the winter when cows were dry. In this model it was found to be economically worthwhile to increase body condition score during lactation and maintain it during the winter so that it remained elevated during calving.
Increased management of lambing: When single lamb daily weight gains were greater than 0.2 kg/d, the lambing percentage was 150% with 70% survival rates of lamb then for a three times daily lambing beat to be economically worthwhile lamb survival had to increase to 76.03%. This improvement appears minimal but may require a significant change in practice during lambing beats. If increased lambing surveillance does not increase lamb survival then it will not be economically worthwhile and will be a cost without economic return.
Summary
To investigate the cost of improving animal welfare on New Zealand farms, three models were developed to investigate the cost of pain alleviation during castration of calves, maintaining body condition score in cows and increased lambing management. Alleviating pain during castration increased costs to farmers. The cost per calf for the status quo is 28 cents and if local anaesthetic is used, $1.56. It was economically worthwhile to increase body condition score during lactation and maintain it during the winter. To be economically worthwhile increased lambing beats have to improve lamb survival by more than 5%.
Publications
Stafford, K J; Mellor, D J; Dooley, A E; Smeaton, D; McDermott, A (2005) The cost of alleviating the pain caused by the castration of beef calves. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 65, 123–126.
1.4 FMA 115
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Programme Title: |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
Canterbury Agriculture |
This research programme is not completed. Further information will be included in Research Results 2005/06.
1.5 FMA 121
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Programme Title: |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
Landcare Research |
Summary
To review and key the species of Carpophilus beetles in New Zealand and Australia.
Background
Most Carpophilus species are associated with ripe, rotten and dried fruits and vegetables, but because they are known to attack healthy fruits and transmit yeast and bacterial pathogens, they are regarded as important pests of fruit industries. There has been no detailed study of the group in Australasia, so John Marris (Lincoln University) and Rich Leschen were contracted to develop a key to the species, provide background information, and a specimen database.
Approach & Outcomes
Obtain museum material, sort and identify specimens, produce a morphological key to the adults, and summarise host and distribution data.
Outcomes
We covered 11 species of Carpophilus that are either established (C. davidsoni, C. dimidiatus, C. gaveni, C. hemipterus, C. ligneus, C. marginellus) or regularly intercepted (C. maculatus, C. mutilatus, C. obsoletus, C. oculatus, C. truncatus) in New Zealand. Based on material examined, all but C. ligneus and C. oculatus have been reported in Australia. The species are keyed based on adult characters and provided with adult diagnoses, distribution and host information, and their biological status in New Zealand. The taxonomic status of C. maculatus and C. oculatus is questionable, and the identity of Australian species C. planatus requires examination of type material of that species and of C. atterimus and C. bakewelli.
A supplemental specimen database of over 900 entries of the New Zealand-established species (including those on the Kermadec Islands) is provided as supplementary information. We have gone through all of the New Zealand material and about a third of the Australian material; problems dealing with this genus were greatly underestimated and have only become apparent through careful examination of the available specimens. Type material must be examined for most Australian taxa, and the identified material needs to be fully verified because often material identified as one species contains a mixture of taxa.
Summary
An illustrated key to the 11 species intercepted and established in NewZealand, as well as diagnoses of each species, with a specimen database of those established in New Zealand, were completed for the project. A list of Australian taxa was included as an appendix of the report. A key for Australian species was not included due to limitations of the project.
Publications
None (so far)
1.6 FMA 122
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Programme Title: |
Revision of the genus Tyrophagus in New Zealand and Australia |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
Landcare Research, Auckland |
Summary
To provide a revised taxonomy of Tyrophagus species in New Zealand and Australia and to prepare user-friendly identification keys to species. The keys are based on the morphological characters of the adults (both males and females).
Background
A key is required that allows identification of Tyrophagus mites in New Zealand to facilitate requests for rapid quarantine decisions from trading partners.
Approach & Outcomes
Existing slide-mounted specimens in NZAC, MAF NPPRL in Lincoln and Lynfield, and other available material, were collated, assessed and examined by light microscopy, and diagnostic features discriminating genera and species were identified and illustrated by line drawings. All species were fully described with illustrations. Distributional data and host plants were listed based on published records but mostly from data accompanying the specimens.
Outcomes
More than 2678 Tyrophagus mite specimens of different stages mounted in over 866 slides mainly from Australia and New Zealand were examined. A revision of the genus was completed. A total of 110 figure plates were prepared and 2860 morphological data were recorded and examined.
Eleven species known from Australia and New Zealand were described: Tyrophagus curvipenis Fain and Fauvel (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, FRANCE, PORTUGAL), Tyrophagus javensis Oudemans (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, cosmopolitan), Tyrophagus longior (Gervais) (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, cosmopolitan), Tyrophagus neiswanderi Johnston & Bruce (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, cosmopolitan), Tyrophagus perniciosus Zachvatkin (AUSTRALIA, BULGARIA, JAPAN, POLAND, RUSSIA, UK), Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, cosmopolitan), Tyrophagus savasi Lynch (NEW ZEALAND, UK), Tyrophagus similis Volgin (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, cosmopolitan), Tyrophagus vanheurni Oudemans (NEW ZEALAND, NETHERLANDS, cosmopolitan), Tyrophagus sp. 1 nov. (COOK IS.), Tyrophagus sp. 2 nov. (AUSTRALIA). Lists of hosts are also provided. Tyrophagus palmarum sensu Robertson (1959) was identified as Tyrophagus vanheurni Oudemans. Definitions of Tyrophagus javensis Oudemans and Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) were revised and clarified.
1.7 FMA 123
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Programme Title: |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
Massey University |
This research programme is not completed. Further information will be included in Research Results 2005/06.
1.8 FMA 124
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Programme Title: |
Body condition scores (BCS) for good welfare in dairy cattle |
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Programme Leader: |
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Institution: |
AgResearch |
Summary
To understand the relationship between body condition score and response to cold stress in dairy cattle.
Background
In welfare-sensitive markets in Europe, including the United Kingdom, the New Zealand dairy industry is often criticised for maximising productivity at the expense of animal welfare. Specifically, there are concerns about the animals’ exposure to extreme weather conditions in New Zealand’s pastoral systems. Although there are many factors that are likely to influence an animal’s ability to cope with climatic challenges, low body condition is an area of industry concern. In addition, low body condition may impair the welfare of animals during the cold weather in the autumn/winter months. Body condition scores are a commonly used assessment tool which could easily be used by MAF inspectors or other auditors of animal welfare. However, we lack the information to determine the level at which body condition scores become a welfare concern in autumn/winter weather.
Approach & Outcomes
In conjunction with a related Dairy InSight-funded experiment, two groups of 10 non-lactating Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were housed at the Landcorp facility near Taupo for six weeks. One group had low body condition scores (LOW, average 4 out of 10) and the other group had high body condition scores (HIGH, average 8 out of 10). Animals were housed alternately on either a wood-chip stand-off pad with no shelter (OUT) or on a similar wood-chip surface indoors (IN) for one week at a time, over a period of six weeks (total of three weeks in each housing condition). Although inclement weather is relatively common in this region in winter, if the wind speed fell below 10 km/h, artificial wind was applied using fans. Likewise, artificial rain was created with sprinklers for 20 minutes every hour. The following variables were measured and were used to evaluate the relationship between BCS and the welfare of cattle in cold and wet weather:
- Internal body temperature. Body temperature loggers were placed in the vagina of each cow and allowed for continuous monitoring of temperature.
- Changes in time budgets. A team of trained observers recorded the amount of time spent feeding, standing, and lying down over 17 24-hour periods.
- Postures and shivering. A team of trained observers recorded the standing and lying postures as well as any shivering exhibited by dairy cattle over 17 24-hour periods.
Outcomes
Average body temperatures were similar between the two BCS (P=0.174). However, thinner cows had higher maximum and lower minimum temperatures when compared to the high-condition cows (P≤0.022). Similarly, although average temperatures occurred while the cows were OUT, particularly for LOW cows (Plocation=0.054; Plocation*BCS≤0.001), LOW cows spent more time eating silage and less time lying down than HIGH cows when both inside and outside, indicating the BCS may fundamentally alter time budgets of dairy cattle, regardless of weather conditions. Cows spent less time lying down outside, but there was no difference in time spent eating in the two locations. Cows were less likely to lie with their head supported by their bodies when outside (OUT: 5±0.4% vs. IN: 13±0.4%), indicating that cows had fewer opportunities for deep-sleep when outside. While outside, cows were more likely to lie with front legs bent and hind legs touching the body, especially if they were LOW (OUT: 65±2.1% vs. IN: 18±2.1%; while outside: LOW: 74±3.0% vs. HIGH: 55±3.0%), to limit heat loss by minimizing exposed surface area. Cows spent more time standing outside, particularly with their head down. Cows were never observed shivering when inside and while outside, thinner cows spent more time shivering than well-conditioned cows (HIGH: 9.7±1.8 min, LOW: 25±1.8 min/24h; PBCS0.029, PBCS*location interaction=0.004).
In conclusion, when outside, cows spent less time lying down and were less likely to lie with their heads supported. Cows were more likely to lie and stand in positions that limited exposed surface area when outside. Thinner cows spent more time eating, shivering and lying in positions that limited exposed surface area. These results highlight the importance of both body condition and provision of shelter for dairy cattle welfare in winter.
Publications
Tucker, C B; Kendall, P; Rogers, A R; Webster, J R; Matthews, L M (2005) Body condition helps cows cope with winter weather. Dexcelink (Dexcel extension publication) May 2005.
Rogers, A R; Tucker, C B; Webster, J R (2005) Behavioural responses to cold stress in New Zealand dairy cows. Australasian Society for the Study of Animal Behaviour. Palmerston North, New Zealand. March, 2005.
Tucker, C B; Rogers, A; Verkerk, G A; Webster, J R; Matthews, L M (2005) Body condition influences the behaviour of dairy cattle. Workshop for the Assessment of Animal Welfare at the Farm and Group Level. Vienna, Austria. September 2005.
Stewart, M; Tucker, C B; Rogers, A R; Webster, J R; Verkerk, G A; Matthews, L M (2005) The effects of adverse weather conditions on the behaviour and physiology of New Zealand dairy cows. International Ethology Conference. Budapest, Hungary. August, 2005.
1.9 FMA 125
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Programme Title: |
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Programme Leaders: |
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Institution: |
J.C. Pollard |
Summary
To develop a system for planning, observing and recording stock health and feed resources on organic farms, which can be readily assessed and verified by auditors and inspectors.
Background
Organic farming requires good management so that problems with stock health or feed supply can be prevented, because options for health treatments and feed sources are limited if the organic status of the animals is to be maintained. Forward planning and observation are required for minimising risk and early detection of problems. To ensure this process has integrity and transparency, documentation of planning, observation, risk management strategies and actions is necessary. A previous study (Mackay et al., 2003) examined management of welfare risks on organic farms and developed ideas and techniques for monitoring procedures. The present study built on this and incorporated veterinary knowledge and farmer input to produce a practical system for planning, observing and recording stock health and feed resources.
Approach & Outcomes
Information on feed budgeting and animal health management was built into a planning and monitoring programme for organic sheep and beef farms. The feed budgeting system was based on a practical, informal approach described by Gray et al. (2003) while thresholds for action on health problems were based on those developed by Mackay et al. (2003). Three organic farmers with very different farming operations (one BioGro, two AgriQuality certified, all farming sheep and cattle) were then shown the draft system and asked about its practicality and usefulness. Their feedback was used to revise the system then they were asked to comment again before the system was finally documented.
Outcomes
Farmers were concerned that a health and feed planning and recording system would create more paperwork without aiding farm management in any way. However they expressed a strong interest in having more information on organic farming and felt that during the conversion period new organic farmers had very little information or support. Thus the project aimed to provide important information on health and feeding livestock along with a very simple planning and recording system that fitted in with, rather than adding significantly to, normal farm planning and monitoring. The project took the form of a planner, which was to be used in conjunction with the farmer’s own daily diary, for which a laminated insert was supplied to aid farmers in their monitoring of stock when out on the farm.
The planner contains information on the major health challenges for organic farmers, including risk factors, symptoms, monitoring requirements, thresholds for action and appropriate treatments. The thresholds are designed to prevent problems becoming out of hand or significantly affecting animal welfare. Regular monitoring is used to identify problems and supported by tables for the farmer to fill out to plan and record stock health. Seasonal checks of performance are also made including a hands-on inspection of each stock class. Information on feed budgeting, and tables for planning and monitoring feed supplies and stock weights and body condition are supplied.
Completed planning and monitoring tables could be used to demonstrate to auditors that stock health and condition was being managed well. In addition, the action thresholds could be used as minimum standards during auditors’ inspections of stock.
Further evaluation by farmers and wider discussion of the system (for example with auditors) would be valuable.
Summary
The project developed a system for planning, observing and recording stock health and feed resources on organic sheep and cattle farms. Organic farming requires good management so that problems with stock health or feed supply can be prevented. Information on feed budgeting and animal health management was built into a programme which was then discussed with organic farmers. The farmers expressed a preference for helpful information and minimal extra recording. The project took the form of a planner, which was to be used in conjunction with the farmer’s own daily diary, plus a laminated diary insert to aid farmers in their monitoring of stock when out on the farm. The planner supplies information on the major health challenges, risk factors, symptoms, monitoring requirements, thresholds for action and appropriate treatments. Tables for identifying and managing health risks and recording outcomes are provided for the farmer to fill out. Information on feed budgeting, and tables for seasonal planning and monitoring of feed supplies and stock weights and body condition are supplied. Completed planning and monitoring tables could be used to demonstrate that stock was being managed well. In addition, the action thresholds could be used as minimum standards during auditors’ inspections of stock. Further evaluation and wider discussion of the proposed system would be valuable.
Contact for Enquiries
Farm Monitoring Programme Manager
Monitoring and Evaluation
MAF Policy
PO Box 2526
Wellington
NEW ZEALAND
Phone: +64 4 894 0623
Fax: +64 4 894 0741
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