12 - Appendices

Appendix a: Indicative outline for case studies on agricultural biological diversity

Background

The programme of work on agricultural biodiversity, adopted by the Conference of Parties in decision V/5, makes provision for case studies on various topics to identify management practices, technologies and policies that promote the positive and mitigate the negative impacts of agriculture on biodiversity, and enhance productivity and the capacity to sustain livelihoods.

More specifically, activity 2.1 of the Programme of Work calls for a series of case studies, in a range of environments and production systems, and in each region:

  1. To identify key goods and services provided by agricultural biodiversity, needs for the conservation and sustainable use of components of this biological diversity in agricultural ecosystems, and threats to such diversity;
  2. To identify best management practices; and
  3. To monitor and assess the actual and potential impacts of existing and new agricultural technologies.

This activity would address the multiple goods and services provided by the different levels and functions of agricultural biodiversity and the interaction between its various components with a focus on certain specific and cross-cutting issues, such as:

  1. The role and potential of wild, under-utilized and neglected species, varieties and breeds, and products;
  2. The role of genetic diversity in providing resilience, reducing vulnerability, and enhancing adaptability of production systems to changing environments and needs;
  3. The synergies and interactions between different components of agricultural biodiversity;
  4. The role of pollinators, with particular reference to their economic benefits, and the effects of introduced species on indigenous pollinators and other aspects of biological diversity;
  5. The role of soil and other below-ground biodiversity in supporting agricultural production systems, especially in nutrient cycling;
  6. Pest and disease control mechanisms, including the role of natural enemies and other organisms at field and landscape levels, host plant resistance, and implications for agroecosystem management;
  7. The wider ecosystem services provided by agricultural biodiversity;
  8. The role of different temporal and spatial patterns in mosaics of land use, including complexes of different habitats;
  9. Possibilities of integrated landscape management as a means for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

Additionally, COP decisions V/6 and V/24 call for case studies on the application of the ecosystem approach and on best practices for the sustainable use of biological diversity, including studies within the context of the thematic areas of the Convention.

The use of a common framework can facilitate synthesis of lessons learnt from the case studies and integration of the ecosystem approach and considerations of sustainable use. The following indicative was originally made available to the Conference of the Parties

in document UNEP/CBD/COP/5/INF/10. It has been revised in the light of COP decisions.

Indicative Outline

Overview: In one page, please provide a summary of the case study using bullet points to highlight: the context/problem to be solved; the objectives; the approach; application of the ecosystem approach; and lessons learnt.

  1. Background/Problem statement: Please describe the context or situation of the case study, and identify problem that is addressed by the activities of the case. Consideration of threats to biological diversity, the goods and services derived from it, and the distribution of benefits among stakeholders may be included, and, if known, the underlying causes of such threats may be described.
  2. Objectives/Purpose of the Activities: Please provide, in one or few sentences the main objective(s) of the activities proposed and/or carried out.
  3. Details of the case study and the approach taken: Please describe the activities, the approach taken, and the main actors involved.
  4. Analysis: Please analyse the case study in the framework of the various programmes of the Convention, using, as appropriate the checklist in Appendix 1. (Note, this should be used as an aide memoir, i.e. it is not necessarily appropriate to address each and every part in the appendix). This section might be presented in tabular form, and should complement section III.
  5. Conclusions.
  1. Outcome of the activities. Please provide a brief note of the results, or expected results, of the case study, and the extent to which the objectives were met.
  2. Lessons Learnt. Please highlight any critical factors that led to the success or failure of any of the activities carried out. It would be useful to note any practical conclusions that would assist others in carrying out similar activities, as well any policy-relevant lessons.

Appendix: Checklist for the analysis of the case study (section IV)

  1. Application of the Ecosystem Approach.
  1. Describe how the case study illustrates any of the 12 principles of the ecosystem approach under the Convention (see COP decision V/6), and identify any constraints in applying these principles.
  2. For the case study:
  1. Identify goods and services provided by biodiversity in the area of case study (and additional ones that could be provided with improved management), and identify the components of biodiversity and the functional relationships between these components which give rise to such goods and services;
  2. Identify the beneficiaries of these goods and services as well as additional groups who could become beneficiaries, and identify any barriers to their access to the benefits;
  3. Describe approaches to adaptive management noting, what is most effective and what is least effective;
  4. Describe the scale(s) of management used, additional scale(s) of management that may be needed to address the problem, and any barriers to exercising management at the appropriate scales.
  5. Identify sectors involved, those that should be involved, and identify changes required to provide an enabling policy environment.

 

  1. Relevance to the operational objectives of the Programme of Work on Agricultural Biological Diversity
  1. Indicate whether and how the case study contributes to:
  1. An assessment of status and trends of the world's agricultural biodiversity and of their underlying causes;
  2. The identification of management practices, technologies and policies that promote the positive and mitigate the negative impacts of agriculture on biodiversity, and enhance productivity and the capacity to sustain livelihoods;
  3. Strengthening of the capacities of farmers, their communities, and organizations and other stakeholders, including agro-enterprises, to manage agricultural biodiversity, and the promotion of increased awareness and responsible action;
  4. The development of national plans or strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity and their mainstreaming and integration in sectoral and cross-sectoral plans and programmes.
  1. Relevance to the thematic work programmes of the Convention
  1. Indicate whether or not the case study is relevant to the following thematic areas, and describe how they are relevant:
  1. Forest biological diversity
  2. Marine and Coastal biological diversity
  3. Biological diversity of inland waters
  4. Biological diversity of dry and sub-humid lands (including Mediterranean, Savannah and Grasslands)
  5. Biological diversity of mountain areas
  1. Relevance to the cross-cutting work programmes of the Convention
  1. Indicate whether or not the case study is relevant to the identification, control or mitigation of the effects of invasive alien species.
  2. Indicate whether or not the case study employs indicators of biological diversity, or of impacts on biological diversity.
  3. Indicate whether the case study employs the use of incentive measures for the conservation and sustainable use of agricultural biodiversity, or identifies perverse incentives.
  4. Indicate whether the case study employs impact assessments (environmental, socio economic) or indicates the need for impact assessments.
  5. Indicate whether or not the case study furthers the taxonomic understanding of the organisms concerned, or elucidates the need for further taxonomic work.
  6. Indicate whether the case study employs the use of benefit-sharing measures.
  7. Indicate whether the case study draws upon the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities and whether it contributes to the protection and wider application of such knowledge, innovations and practices.
  8. Indicate any other measures taken to promote the sustainable use of biological diversity.
  9. Indicate if the case study is part of, or contributes to, a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.

Appendix b: Indicative guidelines for forest biodiversity case studies

Decision IV/7 on Forest Biological Diversity

A Call for Case Studies on the ecosystem approach applied in sustainable forest management practices

Introduction

Decision IV/7, adopted at the fourth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 4), Element 1 of the Work Programme for Forest Biological Diversity on "Holistic and inter-sectoral ecosystem approaches that integrate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking account of social and cultural and economic considerations", paragraph 16, calls for case studies from countries in which the ecosystem approach has been applied in sustainable forest management practices, including arid and semi-arid areas. This could assist other countries in developing their own national actions and approaches under this work programme.

What is the ecosystem approach

There is not agreed definition of the ecosystem approach under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) although decision II/8 recognized that the ecosystem approach should be the primary framework of action to be taken under the Convention.

However, document UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/5/11 that the Secretariat has prepared for the fifth meeting of SBSTTA and which is accessible on CBD web site proposes a description of the ecosystem approach as " a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Thus, the application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention: conservation; sustainable use; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. An ecosystem approach is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems".

The ecosystem approach is expected to be further considered by the fifth meeting of the Conference of the Parties in May 2000 (see document UNEP/CBD/COP/5/12).

Format of presentation of cases studies

The following format for the presentation of case studies is proposed to assist in the preparation of the synthesis of case studies. This format will also help in the presentation of the information through the clearing-house mechanism.

The deadline for submission of the case studies October 1st, 2000 .

Indicative outline for case studies on ecosystem approach on forest sustainable management practices

To the extent possible case studies should be short, succinct summaries of examples/experiences of 5 pages. A reasonable amount of footnotes is welcomed, as long as they provide useful sources for further information. If possible please provide a hard copy and an electronic version (by floppy disk or via e-mail), in word windows format.

In preparing the case study, authors are recommended to follow the outline provided below as far as possible. However, authors should feel free to include information not addressed in the outline.

  1. Overview: Summary of the case studies.
  2. Description of sustainable forest management practices of the country or the areas that are concerned by the case studies
  3. Presentation of case studies
  4. Assessment of success or failure in applying the ecosystem approach in sustainable forest management practices
  5. Lessons learnt that could assist other countries in developing their own national actions and approaches under the work programme for forest biological diversity

Appendix c: the ecosystem approach: the primary framework for action under the convention on biological diversity

Introduction

The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention. It is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems.

"Ecosystem" means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit". (Article 2 of the Convention)

As described by the Conference of the Parties, the ecosystem approach is the primary framework for action under the Convention. The Conference of the Parties, at its Fifth Meeting, endorsed the description of the ecosystem approach and operational guidance and recommended the application of the principles and other guidance on the Ecosystem Approach (decision V/ 6 ).

Background

Consideration of the Ecosystem Approach by the Conference of Parties

At its second meeting, held in Jakarta, November 1995, the Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted the ecosystem approach as the primary framework for action under the Convention, and subsequently has referred to the ecosystem approach in the elaboration and implementation of the various thematic and cross-cutting issues work programmes under the Convention (Decision II/8)

The thematic and cross-cutting issues concerned include:

  • biological diversity of inland water ecosystems (recommendations III/1 and decision IV/4); marine and coastal biological diversity (decision II/10 and IV/5); agricultural biological diversity (decision II/16 and III/11);
  • forest biological diversity (decisions I/8, II/9, III/12 and IV/7); indicators of biological diversity (decision IV/1);
  • incentive measures (decision IV/10 A) and environmental impact assessment (decision IV/10 C), as well as:

At its fourth meeting in Bratislava in May 1998, the Conference of the Parties, acknowledged the need for a workable description and further elaboration of the ecosystems approach, and requested the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) "to develop principles and other guidance on the ecosystem approach, taking into consideration, inter alia, the results of the Malawi workshop, and to report thereon to the Conference of the Parties at its fifth meeting".

Synopsis of workshops and other initiatives related to the ecosystem approach

The ecosystem approach has been discussed in a number of workshops and promoted through a range of initiatives which, together, provide a wide range of technical views and different geographical perspectives. The initiatives described below should be considered together with numerous other efforts being undertaken in this field at both the conceptual and at more practical levels:

  • Inter-Agency Ecosystem Management Task Force, United States, June 1995
  • Representatives from a wide range of United States federal agencies were mandated to adopt "a proactive approach to ensuring a sustainable economy and a sustainable environment through ecosystem management". The working group conducted a number of case-studies in the United States of America to examine experiences, identify barriers to implementing the ecosystem approach and ways of overcoming them. Recommendations were made to improve federal agency involvement in the ecosystem approach through, inter alia, improving agency coordination, partnerships with stakeholders, public communication, adaptive management strategies, and supporting the role of science. An outline framework for the ecosystem approach was developed as a guidance tool for agencies interested in adopting the approach.
  • "The scientific basis of ecosystem management towards the third millennium" Sibthorp seminar, London, United Kingdom, June 1996

The Sibthorp (IUCN) seminar was designed to look critically at the findings of recent ecological research and consider implications for conservation practices. Ten principles for ecosystem management were distilled from the conclusions of the seminar. These were divided into:

Guiding principles: Management objectives are a matter of social choice; ecosystems must be managed in a human context; ecosystems must be managed within natural limits; management must recognize that change is inevitable; management must be undertaken at the appropriate scale and conservation use the full range of protected areas; and

Operational principles: Ecosystem management needs to think globally but act locally; it must seek to maintain or enhance ecosystem structure and functioning; decision-makers should use appropriate tools from science; managers must act with caution; a multidisciplinary approach is needed.

Discussion of the principles at the 1996 World Conservation Congress concluded that for their application they needed, inter alia: adaptation to more specific national and local conditions, adaptive management approaches, risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis, good communications to articulate social choices, management scales and time-frames sensitive to ecosystem dynamics, and mechanisms for keeping management options open.

  • Task Group on Ecosystem Approach and Ecosystem Science, Canada, September 1996
  • The Task Group highlighted key concepts of an ecosystem approach to management. These included using spatially meaningful frameworks in planning, recognizing that preserving natural systems and their inter-relationships is imperative, and adopting an integrated and holistic approach that also seeks cooperation and collaboration with stakeholders at all stages of the decision making process. In addition, the Task Group defined a four-step approach to management and, through the assessment of case-studies from Canada, summarized the challenges that face the ecosystem approach: community, institutional or organizational, and scientific challenges. It concluded that the approach requires new partnerships with stakeholders, and broadened perspectives of traditional and non-traditional partners. However, a flexible ecosystem approach can permit long-term solutions to complex environmental issues by engaging broadened perspectives of traditional and non-traditional partners.
  • The Keystone National Policy Dialogue on Ecosystem Management, Keystone Centre, Colorado, United States, October 1996
  • Participants from resource management and regulatory agencies, tribal organizations, forest management, housing, agriculture, ranching, environment, politics, scientific, research and academia concluded that ecosystem management is "neither a panacea nor a magic solution" "but it can be a significant process capable of sometimes dramatic results that accommodate disparate values and interests". The policy recommendations for facilitating implementation included: use of market-based tools, streamlining government decision-making processes, reforming property tax laws, addressing statutory barriers and strengthening the science base.
  • Informal meeting at the third meeting of Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, Montreal, September 1997
  • The Convention Secretariat organized an informal discussion on the ecosystem approach under the Convention. Participants agreed that a discussion within the process of the Convention was a priority, as there was a broad range of views about the meaning, scope and elements of the approach. Problems that needed further discussion were highlighted: terminology; types of ecosystems (natural versus man-modified); underlying theoretical assumptions; relation between ecosystem approach and ecosystem management; problems of methodology; the need for case-studies; and implications for the implementation of the Convention with special reference to modus operandi and the legal implications.
  • Workshop on the Ecosystem Approach, Lilongwe, Malawi, January 1998
  • The Workshop was sponsored by the Governments of the Netherlands and Malawi, and organized under the auspices of the Convention. The participants discussed what an ecosystem approach should be why an ecosystem approach should be taken to implement the Convention and what are the principles of an ecosystem approach. An ecosystem approach was considered as cutting across all the thematic areas of the Convention and could overcome the shortcomings and deficiencies of using classical nature conservation approaches as the sole tool for management of biological diversity. Twelve principles were identified as a basis for discussion of the "ecosystem approach". The workshop concluded that the principles had to be taken now from a conceptual realm and made operational, and that there were many issues involved in establishing management objectives when taking an ecosystem approach. Procedures and methodologies for arriving at balanced trade-offs were identified as urgent needs. The workshop report was submitted to the Conference of the Parties at its fourth meeting as document UNEP/CBD/COP/4/Inf.9
  • Workshop on an Ecosystem Approach to the Management of Inland Waters, Global Biodiversity Forum 10, Bratislava, Slovakia, May 1998

The Workshop organized as part of the tenth Global Biodiversity Forum agreed the following summary statement: "Ecosystems adapt and evolve. Applying the ecosystem approach means your management framework should too". The Malawi principles were endorsed by the workshop. Priority issues were identified and included: a need for clear guidelines for the implementation of the ecosystem approach by Parties; the strong role of adaptive management in implementation; the need to practice the precautionary approach in management; the value of collating case-study experience in the implementation of the ecosystem approach; the need to review, revise and implement policy, legal and economic mechanisms to ensure they support the ecosystem approach at national and regional levels; the importance of transparency and involvement of stakeholders in the ecosystem approach; the need for cross-sectoral cooperation and capacity-building to enable Parties implement the ecosystem approach.

  • "The ecosystem approach - what does it mean for European ecosystems?" workshop, Isle of Vilm, Germany, November 1998.

The workshop discussed the relevance of the Malawi principles and their possible implementation in a European context with a strong emphasis on case-studies relevant to the implementation of the ecosystem approach in Europe. The participants supported the results of the Malawi Workshop and further expressed a need for clarity in terminology and definition surrounding the ecosystem approach; the need for further guidance on implementation of the ecosystem approach; and that the ecosystem approach must be able to cope with the highly diverse environmental and social conditions found in Europe. The participants also proposed a set of priority actions for implementation of the ecosystem approach to key target audiences.

  • Discussions in the Ecosystem Conservation Group

The Ecosystem Conservation Group, which is convened by UNEP and brings together the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank, IUCN-The World Conservation Union, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) has recently been re-established. It provides an avenue through which science and technology relating to ecosystem conservation can be brought together in the design of policies, strategies and programmes. It has considered, for example, the management of large ecosystems with reference to marine and coastal environments.

  • Workshop on Integrated Planning At Different Scales: Policy and Practice, Perth, Scotland, April 1999

The workshop focused on ecosystem approaches from different countries and identified generic issues that might be best addressed at the international level. It was concluded that the following was needed in order to make the implementation of the ecosystem approach work: integration of policy across all sectors and all administrative levels; changes in institutional cultures; more creative use of tools and mechanisms; and removal of perverse incentives and market distortions.

  •  "An ecosystem approach under the CBD", IUCN-CEM (Commission on Ecology and Management) technical meeting, Costa Rica, May 1999

The meeting addressed the relevance of the Malawi principles from a regional and global perspective. The participants concluded that when choosing management objectives for the ecosystem approach there is a need for mechanisms to align national and local objectives, clarification of policy at national and local levels and education and capacity building to ensure choices. The participants also stressed the importance of pilot projects in demonstrating the value of the approach and the feedback of scientific research to stakeholders.

  • Norway/United Nations Conference on the Ecosystem Approach for the Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity, Trondheim, Norway, September 1999. The Trondheim Conference focused on research and development that contributes to an improved understanding of the Malawi principles, with the aim of integrating them in everyday management practices. There was broad consensus at the meeting that given spatial and temporal complexity of biodiversity and the human use of systems, the ecosystem approach including adaptive management is the most appropriate framework to achieve the optimum balance of the Conventions objectives. Key recommendations of the Trondheim conference included, inter alia: implementation programmes should be designed to adjust to the unexpected, rather than to act on the basis of a belief in certainties; the development of capacity in the ecosystem approach, adaptive management, monitoring, information, and participatory management is a matter of high priority; as global trade accelerates there needs to be continuing monitoring and discussion on potential adverse impacts on biological diversity and ecosystem properties; cost-effective ways of mitigating adverse impacts need to be developed; ecosystem management needs to recognize the diversity of social and cultural factors affecting natural resource use; there is a need to develop accepted methodologies for the valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services; there is a need to integrate the ecosystem approach into agriculture, fisheries, forestry and other production systems that have effects on biodiversity. The report of the Trondheim meeting will be available at the fifth meeting of the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice.
  • CBD Liaison Group, Paris, September 1999

A liaison group meeting of experts convened by the Secretariat with the generous support of the Governments of France and the United Kingdom, as well as UNEP, and held at headquarters of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris, in September 1999. The liaison group developed proposed actions aimed at implementing each principle and other guidance on such an approach.

DESCRIPTION

  1. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Thus, the application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention: conservation; sustainable use; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
  2. An ecosystem approach is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompass the essential structure, processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of many ecosystems.
  3. This focus on structure, processes, functions and interactions is consistent with the definition of "ecosystem" provided in Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity:

"'Ecosystem' means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit."

This definition does not specify any particular spatial unit or scale, in contrast to the Convention definition of "habitat". Thus, the term "ecosystem" does not, necessarily, correspond to the terms "biome" or "ecological zone", but can refer to any functioning unit at any scale. Indeed, the scale of analysis and action should be determined by the problem being addressed. It could, for example, be a grain of soil, a pond, a forest, a biome or the entire biosphere.

  1. The ecosystem approach requires adaptive management to deal with the complex and dynamic nature of ecosystems and the absence of complete knowledge or understanding of their functioning. Ecosystem processes are often non-linear, and the outcome of such processes often shows time-lags. The result is discontinuities, leading to surprise and uncertainty. Management must be adaptive in order to be able to respond to such uncertainties and contain elements of "learning-by-doing" or research feedback. Measures may need to be taken even when some cause-and-effect relationships are not yet fully established scientifically.
  2. The ecosystem approach does not preclude other management and conservation approaches, such as biosphere reserves, protected areas, and single-species conservation programmes, as well as other approaches carried out under existing national policy and legislative frameworks, but could, rather, integrate all these approaches and other methodologies to deal with complex situations. There is no single way to implement the ecosystem approach, as it depends on local, provincial, national, regional or global conditions. Indeed, there are many ways in which ecosystem approaches may be used as the framework for delivering the objectives of the Convention in practice.

OPERATIONAL GUIDANCE FOR APPLICATION OF THE ECOSYSTEM APPROACH

In applying the 12 principles of the ecosystem approach, the following five points are proposed as operational guidance.

  1. Focus on the relationships and processes within ecosystem.

The many components of biodiversity control the stores and flows of energy, water and nutrients within ecosystems, and provide resistance to major perturbations. A much better knowledge of ecosystem functions and structure, and the roles of the components of biological diversity in ecosystems, is required, especially to understand: (i) ecosystem resilience and the effects to biodiversity loss (species and genetic levels) and habitat fragmentation; and (ii) underlying causes of biodiversity loss; and iii) determinants of local biological diversity in management decisions. Functional biodiversity in ecosystems provides many goods and services of economic and social importance. While there is a need to accelerate efforts to gain new knowledge about functional biodiversity, ecosystem management has to be carried out even in the absence of such knowledge. The ecosystem approach can facilitate practical management by ecosystem managers (whether local communities or national policy makers).

  1. Enhance benefit-sharing.

Benefits that flow from the array of functions provided by biological diversity at the ecosystem level provide the basis of human environmental security and sustainability. The ecosystem approach seeks that the benefits derived from these functions are maintained or restored. In particular, these functions should benefit the stakeholders responsible for their production and management. This requires, inter alia: capacity building, especially at the level of local communities managing biological diversity in ecosystems; the proper valuation of ecosystem goods and services; the removal of perverse incentives that devalue ecosystem goods and services; and, consistent with the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity, where appropriate, their replacement with local incentives for good management practices.

  1. Use adaptive management practices.

Ecosystem processes and functions are complex and variable. Their level of uncertainty is increased by the interaction with social constructs, which need to be better understood. Therefore, ecosystem management must involve a learning process, which helps to adapt methodologies and practices to the ways in which these systems are being managed and monitored. Implementation programmes should be designed to adjust to the unexpected, rather than to act on the basis of a belief in certainties. Ecosystem management needs to recognize the diversity of social and cultural factors affecting natural-resource use. Similarly, there is a need for flexibility in policy-making and implementation. Long-term, inflexible decisions are likely to be inadequate or even destructive. Ecosystem management should be envisaged as a long-term experiment that builds on its results as it progresses. This "learning-by-doing" will also serve as an important source of information to gain knowledge of how best to monitor the results of management and evaluate whether established goals are being attained. In this respect, it would be desirable to establish or strengthen capacities of Parties for monitoring.

  1. Carry out management actions at the scale appropriate for the issue being addressed, with decentralization to lowest level, as appropriate.

As noted in the description of the ecosystem approach, an ecosystem is a functioning unit that can operate at any scale, depending upon the problem or issue being addressed. This understanding should define the appropriate level for management decisions and actions. Often, this approach will imply decentralization to the level of local communities. Effective decentralization requires proper empowerment, which implies that the stakeholder both has the opportunity to assume responsibility and the capacity to carry out the appropriate action, and needs to be supported by enabling policy and legislative frameworks. Where common property resources are involved, the most appropriate scale for management decisions and actions would necessarily be large enough to encompass the effects of practices by all relevant stakeholders. Appropriate institutions would be required for such decision-making and, where necessary, for conflict resolution. Some problems and issues may require action at still higher levels, through, for example, transboundary cooperation, or even cooperation at global levels.

  1. Ensure intersectoral cooperation. Further information

As the primary framework of action to be taken under the Convention, the ecosystem approach should be fully taken into account in developing and reviewing national biodiversity strategies and action plans. There is also a need to integrate the ecosystem approach into agriculture, fisheries, forestry and other production systems that have an effect on biodiversity. Management of natural resources, according to the ecosystem approach, calls for increased intersectoral communication and cooperation at a range of levels (government ministries, management agencies, etc.). This might be promoted through, for example, the formation of inter-ministerial bodies within the Government or the creation of networks for sharing information and experience.

PRINCIPLES

The following 12 principles are complementary and interlinked.

Principle 1: The objectives of management of land, water and living resources are a matter of societal choices.

Different sectors of society view ecosystems in terms of their own economic, cultural and society needs. Indigenous peoples and other local communities living on the land are important stakeholders and their rights and interests should be recognized. Both cultural and biological diversity are central components of the ecosystem approach, and management should take this into account. Societal choices should be expressed as clearly as possible. Ecosystems should be managed for their intrinsic values and for the tangible or intangible benefits for humans, in a fair and equitable way.

Principle 2: Management should be decentralized to the lowest appropriate level.

Decentralized systems may lead to greater efficiency, effectiveness and equity. Management should involve all stakeholders and balance local interests with the wider public interest. The closer management is to the ecosystem, the greater the responsibility, ownership, accountability, participation, and use of local knowledge.

Principle 3: Ecosystem managers should consider the effects (actual or potential) of their activities on adjacent and other ecosystems.

Management interventions in ecosystems often have unknown or unpredictable effects on other ecosystems; therefore, possible impacts need careful consideration and analysis. This may require new arrangements or ways of organization for institutions involved in decision-making to make, if necessary, appropriate compromises.

Principle 4: Recognizing potential gains from management, there is usually a need to understand and manage the ecosystem in an economic context. Any such ecosystem-management programme should:

  1. Reduce those market distortions that adversely affect biological diversity;
  2. Align incentives to promote biodiversity conservation and sustainable use;
  3. Internalize costs and benefits in the given ecosystem to the extent feasible.

The greatest threat to biological diversity lies in its replacement by alternative systems of land use. This often arises through market distortions, which undervalue natural systems and populations and provide perverse incentives and subsidies to favor the conversion of land to less diverse systems.

Often those who benefit from conservation do not pay the costs associated with conservation and, similarly, those who generate environmental costs (e.g. pollution) escape responsibility. Alignment of incentives allows those who control the resource to benefit and ensures that those who generate environmental costs will pay.

Principle 5: Conservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order to maintain ecosystem services, should be a priority target of the ecosystem approach.

Ecosystem functioning and resilience depends on a dynamic relationship within species, among species and between species and their abiotic environment, as well as the physical and chemical interactions within the environment. The conservation and, where appropriate, restoration of these interactions and processes is of greater significance for the long-term maintained conditions and, accordingly, management should be appropriately cautious.

Principle 6: Ecosystem must be managed within the limits of their functioning.

In considering the likelihood or ease of attaining the management objectives, attention should be given to the environmental conditions that limit natural productivity, ecosystem structure, functioning and diversity. The limits to ecosystem functioning may be affected to different degrees by temporary, unpredictable of artificially maintained conditions and, accordingly, management should be appropriately cautious.

Principle 7: The ecosystem approach should be undertaken at the appropriate spatial and temporal scales.

The approach should be bounded by spatial and temporal scales that are appropriate to the objectives. Boundaries for management will be defined operationally by users, managers, scientists and indigenous and local peoples. Connectivity between areas should be promoted where necessary. The ecosystem approach is based upon the hierarchical nature of biological diversity characterized by the interaction and integration of genes, species and ecosystems.

Principle 8: Recognizing the varying temporal scales and lag-effects that characterize ecosystem processes, objectives for ecosystem management should be set for the long term.

Ecosystem processes are characterized by varying temporal scales and lag-effects. This inherently conflicts with the tendency of humans to favour short-term gains and immediate benefits over future ones.

Principle 9: Management must recognize the change is inevitable.

Ecosystems change, including species composition and population abundance. Hence, management should adapt to the changes. Apart from their inherent dynamics of change, ecosystems are beset by a complex of uncertainties and potential "surprises" in the human, biological and environmental realms. Traditional disturbance regimes may be important for ecosystem structure and functioning, and may need to be maintained or restored. The ecosystem approach must utilize adaptive management in order to anticipate and cater for such changes and events and should be cautious in making any decision that may foreclose options, but, at the same time, consider mitigating actions to cope with long-term changes such as climate change.

Principle 10: The ecosystem approach should seek the appropriate balance between, and integration of, conservation and use of biological diversity.

Biological diversity is critical both for its intrinsic value and because of the key role it plays in providing the ecosystem and other services upon which we all ultimately depend. There has been a tendency in the past to manage components of biological diversity either as protected or non-protected. There is a need for a shift to more flexible situations, where conservation and use are seen in context and the full range of measures is applied in a continuum from strictly protected to human-made ecosystems

Principle 11: The ecosystem approach should consider all forms of relevant information, including scientific and indigenous and local knowledge, innovations and practices.

Information from all sources is critical to arriving at effective ecosystem management strategies. A much better knowledge of ecosystem functions and the impact of human use is desirable. All relevant information from any concerned area should be shared with all stakeholders and actors, taking into account, inter alia, any decision to be taken under Article 8(j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Assumptions behind proposed management decisions should be made explicit and checked against available knowledge and views of stakeholders.

Principle 12: The ecosystem approach should involve all relevant sectors of society and scientific disciplines.

Most problems of biological-diversity management are complex, with many interactions, side-effects and implications, and therefore should involve the necessary expertise and stakeholders at the local, national, regional and international level, as appropriate.

Appendix d: Sections 4.0 and 5.0 of National Science Strategy "Sustainable Land Management" Priorities

4.0 SUMMARY of SLM PRIORITY ISSUES and RESEARCH AREAS

The following two sections present the collation and coordination of material assembled by the three Regional Committees and an evaluation of those priorities resulting from their assessments and those of the National Committee. (The process and the basis of it, are summarised in the appendices attached to this report).

The most important impacts identified (from which the SLM priorities were derived) were:

  • changes in soil biological and biophysical processes; soil physical structure; surface water quality; ground water quality; estuarine and near coastal environments; and terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems;
  • the impact of weed and pest invasion;
  • loss of biodiversity.

Five major categories of SLM Priorities and Research Areas were identified. These are detailed below. The next chapter addresses two further categories which relate to Research and Technology Transfer.

The following alphabetic gradings are used to denote the relative order of priority assigned to the SLM Priority Issues and Research Areas:

"A" - very high priority

"A/B" - high priority

"B" - moderate priority

"C" - low to moderate priority

4.1 SOIL BIOLOGICAL AND BIOPHYSICAL PROCESSES

(Referred to in some of the Regional Committees' material as "Soil Health")

The Committee identified this as a very high priority overall ("A").

Soil is the key biological filter that protects surface and ground water from pollution by land use activities. Soil biological processes are responsible for the immobilisation or mineralisation of nitrogen and phosphorus, degradation of organic chemicals, removal of microbial pathogens, and the attenuation or leaching of heavy metals in the soil. These important roles of soils apply in both urban and rural situations. Biological and physical soil processes (physical processes strongly influenced by the biological components of the soil) are also important as they determine the water holding capacity of the soil, the rates at which water and contaminants pass through the soil mantle and the susceptibility of the soil to mass failure, compaction and erosion. Recent research in New Zealand and overseas has emphasised the importance of soil organic matter in influencing biological and biophysical processes and most sets of soil quality indicators that are currently being developed include measures of organic matter. In New Zealand, levels of soil organic matter reflect the fact that our most productive soils developed under a forest ecosystem.

Research requirements:

There is an urgent need to develop research capability, research programmes and appropriate technologies that will improve our understanding and ability to manage the biological and biophysical processes of soils. This is necessary in order to develop and maintain sustainable land management systems. The outcome sought is that soil system health / soil quality is maintained or, in some cases, restored and the loss of high quality soil to urbanisation is minimised.

(i) Land Application of Effluent and Wastes

Land application of effluent and wastes is rated overall as a very high priority ("A").

The increasing use of land treatment for sewage effluents and other waste can lead to soil contamination by heavy metals, other chemicals and bacteria. In some soil / hydrological systems, the leaching of such contaminants into surface and ground water presents potentially serious problems. In New Zealand little is known about denitrification rates, influence of hydraulic loadings on hydrological processes and the influence of waste/sewage spreading on ecosystems and the buffering capacity of the soil on land treatment sites.

Maori issues encompass concerns when residual flows or contaminants enter waterbodies and for any effects which may impact on areas of traditional food sources, or on health. Threats to wahi tapu sites associated with waterbodies are a particular concern.

Research requirements are:

169. investigations of the impacts of land treatment on nutrient balance, assimilation processes, buffering capacity of the soils and

  • soil organisms and ecosystems.

(ii) Soil Quality and Land Use Versatility

Overall, this was rated as a very high priority ("A").

New Zealand's most productive soils are increasingly subject to changes in land use, intensification of land use, and impacts resulting from urbanisation and industrialisation of rural areas. Specific examples cited in Regional Committee reports include the expansion of the dairy industry in Southland, urban land use encroachment onto productive soils in Auckland, Tauranga and on the Kapiti Coast, and development of dairy processing plants and wood manufacturing plants in rural areas. These influences, together with the perpetuation of non-sustainable land uses such as pastoralism on steep unstable hill country, can cause a decline in soil system health or soil quality. More specifically, these pressures can lead to:

  • structural degradation of the soil;
  • instability and erosion;
  • nutrient loss;
  • reduction in organic matter.

Sustaining soil quality in the face of increasing pressures will depend on carefully-targeted research.

Research requirements are:

  • investigations of the impacts of current land uses on nutrients, organic matter and physical structure;
  • investigations of the "reversibility" of changes or damage to the physical properties of soils;
  • investigations of changes in organic carbon content and the role of organic matter as a source / sink for carbon;
  • investigations of the social and economic implications of decline in soil quality and particularly the loss of high quality soils to urbanisation;
  • development of a full range of soil quality indicators.

This research is closely related to the research priorities in the following four sub-categories.

(iii) Soil Structure and Degradation

This topic area was rated as a high priority ("A/B").

The changes in soil structure and other physical properties caused by stock trampling, use of heavy machinery on the land (ploughing, cultivation and forest harvesting) and a general change and intensification of land use can reduce productivity and change hydrological processes. Such changes can also increase the soil's susceptibility to surface and wind erosion. The problem is widespread throughout New Zealand. For instance, in the South Island it is estimated that over 20 percent of the soils in some districts suffer from compaction as a consequence of intensive stocking.

Research requirements are:

  • surveys and related investigations to determine the extent of soil structure and degradation problems;
  • development of management technologies and strategies to prevent structural degradation and remediate poor soil structure conditions;
  • development and application of monitoring programmes.

(iv) Contamination and Soil Quality Impacts

This topic area was rated as a high priority ("A/B").

A large number of sites in New Zealand suffer from soil contamination as a result of chemical spillages, waste dumping, spreading sewage and effluents onto the land and disposal or leakage of industrial effluents. The intensive application of agri-chemicals (pesticides, weedicides and fertilisers) is a cause of contamination in some intensively managed areas. Animal waste, particularly urine, can also cause contamination in intensively stocked areas. Soil contamination reduces soil health and productivity and there is an urgent need to stop on-going contamination and undertake remediation of already contaminated soils.

Maori concerns centre on the impacts of pesticides, toxic chemicals and heavy metals, in so far as they may cause contamination and food poisoning, and affect health and well-being.

Research requirements are:

  • investigations of the life-cycles of important contaminants in soils;
  • development of avoidance and remediation strategies and technologies.

(v) Erosion Issues and Impacts

Overall, this was rated as a moderate priority ("B").

The Regional Committees identified wind erosion associated with arable and horticultural land uses, mass movements on steep hill country underlain by erodible soft rocks (mudstones and siltstones) and gullying in the central North Island pumice lands as the most serious erosion problems requiring research and technology input.

Maori concerns centre on the destruction of habitats downstream from erosion events, and the effects of deposition on wahi tapu sites (such as urupã).

On a larger scale where modification of landscapes may be involved, concerns centre on the modification or destruction of significant landmarks; reference points; changes to river and stream courses; impact on places special to tangata whenua; impacts on wahi tapu and ancestral sites.

Research requirements are:

  • development of models to predict soil stability;
  • identification of soils with high erosion potential;
  • identification of the socio-economic implications of widespread erosion;
  • investigations of the impacts of erosion on soil productivity and long term land use sustainability.

The relatively low priority rating for this topic area reflects the Committee's recognition that a good deal of soil erosion research has been undertaken or is in progress.

(vi) Soil Productivity

The topic was rated as of low to moderate priority ("C"), a consequence of the fact that the solution to the problem rests largely with applying well known techniques and strategies embracing fertiliser and other types of soil treatment.

The specific research emphasis in this sub-category is on productivity decline resulting from intensification of land use or from a long history of land use which has depleted the soil's nutrient status.

(vii) Groundwater Quality and Contamination

This topic area was rated as a moderate priority ("B").

Nationally, the contamination of groundwater in New Zealand is not a major issue but locally there is a high potential for increased levels of contamination in aquifers near some towns and cities (Hastings, Lower Hutt, Christchurch). Land use intensification and industrialisation in rural areas can also raise the potential for groundwater contamination. Farm effluents from dairy sheds and piggeries; septic tank waste; agri-chemicals; industrial chemical spillages (timber treatment plants), leaking petroleum storage tanks and effluent from freezing works have caused groundwater contamination in recent years. In mid Canterbury and near Nelson, nitrate levels in groundwater have exceeded the Department of Health Guideline for drinking water quality (11 mg N/L). Low levels of pesticides have also been detected in groundwater near Oamaru and Motueka.

The key to protecting ground water quality is wise use of the land above the aquifer.

Maori concerns are associated with leachates and nitrate contamination as these impact on the total soil and water systems and re-enter waterbodies, with possible effects on traditional food source areas and health issues.

Research requirements are:

  • investigations which seek to improve the understanding and knowledge of the storage of contaminants in soils and their
  • release to groundwater;
  • investigations designed to improve understanding and knowledge of groundwater flows and dilution effects;
  • development of technologies and techniques to remedy soil contamination;
  • development of groundwater quality monitoring programmes;
  • development of methods to identify groundwater aquifers susceptible to contamination by land use activities.

(viii) Ecosystem Health

The maintenance and restoration of ecosystem health and ecosystem processes was rated as a high priority ("A/B") when considered within soil biological and biophysical processes.

The health of the soil system is a strong determinant of the health of a soil / water / vegetation / animal ecosystem as a whole. The most serious problems are usually associated with intensively managed agricultural / horticultural / forestry systems.

Research requirements are:

  • development of indicators of ecosystem health;
  • investigations which improve the understanding about the relationships between soil health and the ecosystem as a whole.

4.2 SURFACE WATER ISSUES

This was rated as a high to very high priority ("A/B").

Land use changes and intensification, urbanisation, industrial development, land treatment of effluents and waste and waste dumping can seriously impact surface waters as well as soils. Water impacts include issues of both quality and quantity. Changes in water quality and quantity have implications for domestic, industrial and recreational water use as well as for the health and productivity of aquatic ecosystems. New Zealand has plentiful supplies of high quality fresh water but these are susceptible to pollution and there are

rapidly growing demands on water for domestic supply (both urban and rural), industry, stock, irrigation and recreation. Coastal waters, particularly estuaries and harbours are increasingly used for recreation, fishing, tourism and marine farming. Furthermore, the condition of surface waters has implications for New Zealand's access to some international markets. It is, therefore, of great national importance that water resources are protected from degradation. Water also has special spiritual values for Maori.

The Government's priorities for sustainable water management, as outlined in the "Environment 2010 Strategy" are:

  • establishing guidelines and standards that maintain the biophysical "bottom line" needs of water quality and quantity;
  • promoting integrated land and water management, because catchment management influences water quality and quantity;
  • promoting "land care" type approaches to management of non-point source discharges;
  • establishing accountability mechanisms that require land owners to adopt sustainable land management practices that maintain soil resources and minimise effects on fresh water and marine ecosystems;
  • developing and promoting management techniques, such as tradeable water permits, which give users clear incentives to conserve the quality and quantity of water;
  • encouraging agriculture and industry to adopt techniques such as the recycling of waste water, so that they use water more efficiently and produce less waste,;
  • funding and advocating the research and monitoring necessary for effective water management.

Successful attainment of these priorities will depend on research and monitoring.

(i) Surface Water Quality Issues

This was rated as a very high priority area ("A").

Intensification of rural land use, industrialisation of rural areas, urban growth and removal of forest and scrub vegetation can seriously influence the quality of stream, river and lake surface waters as well as coastal waters, particularly in harbour and estuary areas. Both point source and non-point source pollutants can degrade surface water quality. Pollutants include sediment from agricultural and horticultural lands and from roads, toxic or chemically-enriched effluents from industrial plants such as pulp mills and freezing works, nutrient-enriched diffuse run-off from agricultural lands, toxic leachates from waste dumps, storage tanks, timber processing plants and other industrial plants, and pesticides and other agri-chemicals. These may directly enter into water bodies during spraying or enter indirectly in run-off. In addition, there is a range of bacteria, pathogens and other organisms which are introduced to water bodies in sewage discharges (or leaks), storm run-off from urban areas, ship ballast water discharges, and run-off from intensively-stocked lands.

Elevated nutrient concentrations in watercourses can lead to a proliferation of weed growth in river beds and estuaries. This reduces instream habitat values and can, in extreme situations, cause oxygen depletion and kill fish. Phosphate is generally the limiting nutrient in fresh water, and nitrogen in estuarine and marine waters.

Maori concerns centre on freshwater, estuarine and marine ecosystems; traditional mahinga kai; freshwater and inshore fisheries - especially marine farming, shellfish, seaweeds, and eel farming, and their related water quality issues.

Research requirements are:

  • review of information on sediment impacts on freshwater streams, rivers and lakes and the marine environment in New Zealand, as well as overseas to determine where research to mitigate impacts should be targeted;
  • investigations of the dynamics and ecological impacts of contaminated sediments;
  • investigations of the impacts in marine areas of increased water turbidity, caused by sediment discharge, and its effects on shellfish, indigenous fish species and phytoplankton;
  • investigations of the relative contribution of non-point sources to nutrient and bacterial contamination in water courses. This should include the contribution from diffuse sources to different components of the pollution load, influence of different land uses, variability of pollution load and cumulative impacts; identification of practical, cost effective mitigation measures to control diffuse sources of pollution, including possible new approaches to managing riparian areas;
  • identification and transfer of overseas approaches and measures for mitigating the impacts of pollutants in urban run-off on fresh water and coastal marine ecosystems.

(ii) Instream Demands and the Influence of Abstraction on Aquatic Ecosystems

Instream demands and abstraction issues were rated as a moderate to high priority ("A/B").

Population growth accompanied by expansion of urban areas, particularly in Christchurch, Tauranga, Hamilton and Auckland, new industrial developments and intensification of land use combine to increase the overall use and consumption of water. Furthermore, the expansion of conifer plantations onto pastoral land tends to reduce stream run-off where afforestation affects a large part or all of a catchment area. This is particularly important in key water supply catchments.

Over-abstraction and inappropriate or inefficient use of water - such as in some irrigation systems and practices - can reduce lake water levels or stream flows to levels which threaten the health of aquatic ecosystems and aquatic biodiversity. Maintaining and protecting in-stream habitats is an important component in sustainable resource management.

New Zealand's water managers urgently need a more comprehensive range of assessment and management tools to help manage the country's water resources. Assessment tools include macro-invertebrate monitoring systems, riparian vegetation assessment, assessment of the quantity of water available, guidelines for instream flow requirements and a range of data handling tools. Such tools include economic incentives and instruments such as tradeable water permits, "best management practices" educational programmes, national standards and guidelines, and water management plans. The development of many of these tools needs to be underpinned by research information. To manage ecosystems, it is also necessary to understand better exactly how they function.

Maori concerns are largely the same as those listed for "Surface Water Quality Issues". But in addition, there are particular concerns for wetland management, the management of watercourses, and the retention of sufficient flows to prevent the destruction of animal and bird habitats; deterioration of water quality; draining of wetlands; and modification of watercourses and landscapes.

Research requirements are:

  • investigations of aquatic ecosystem processes and functions;
  • investigations of the instream requirements of native fish and invertebrate species;
  • development of predictive land use hydrological models to forecast the effects of changing land use on stream water yields;
  • determination of the relative uses of water by different, competing users to help establish priorities for water use;
  • development of general rules or guidelines to enable decisions to be made about appropriate minimum flows in different types of rivers and streams;
  • investigations to determine the rate of recovery of aquatic fauna following periods of severe low flow conditions.

4.3 WEEDS, PESTS and BIOSECURITY

This topic category was rated as a very high priority ("A").

New Zealand harbours a wide range of weeds, pests and diseases of plants and animals which damage the environment and the economy. Although geographically a relatively isolated country, New Zealand is increasingly threatened by the entry of new weeds, pests and diseases as a result of increasing international trade, increasing numbers of visitors from overseas and possibly a changing climate.

The Government's goal for managing weeds, pests and diseases, as expressed in the "Environment 2010 Strategy", is:

"To manage pests, weeds and diseases by reducing the risks they pose to levels consistent with established objectives for:

  • biological diversity of ecosystems;
  • people's health;
  • biosecurity of the economy."
  • To achieve this goal the Government intends to give priority to:
  • developing national and regional pest management strategies and wild animal control plans;
  • monitoring pests to ensure that management strategies are effective, and providing assurance that exports meet the phytosanitary requirements of importing countries;
  • maintaining a rigorous system of border control and an effective emergency response;
  • focusing research on the development of innovative pest management, including management techniques that reduce impacts on the environment.

Four significant sub-categories were identified by the Committees although some of these relate more closely to information or control issues rather than to a need for research.

(i) Ecosystem Functioning and Health; Impacts of Weeds, Pests and Diseases

Ecosystem functioning and health as related to weeds, pests and biosecurity was rated as a very high priority ("A").

Many of New Zealand's indigenous and productive agricultural and production forest ecosystems are seriously threatened by weeds, pests and diseases. Outstanding examples of existing problems include the impacts of the Australian possum on indigenous forest and scrub ecosystems, the impacts of rabbits on arable and pastoral areas, the influence of giardia on fresh water quality, and the impacts of gorse on pastoral production. There are also a large number of weeds, pests and diseases which are not yet established in New Zealand but which could have major impacts if they were introduced. Examples are foot and mouth disease, Asian Gypsy Moth and Asian Pin Mussel.

Maori concerns cover a wide spectrum of issues related to the various ecosystems involved (some of these issues have already been referred to in earlier paragraphs). Biodiversity issues, and the maintenance of access to important native species of plants for food, medicinal, carving and handcraft uses, are all of particular importance. Issues associated with the preservation and input of traditional knowledge are of particular importance, as are the issues of intellectual property and indigenous peoples' rights. Particular issues also relate to retaining forests and native bush areas; destruction of particular plants; effects on any cultural harvest of birds and animals; protection of wahi tapu sites; protection of wetland and coastal estuarine areas and systems; and ecosystem effects resulting from modification of landscapes.

Research requirements to minimise the impacts of pests, weeds and diseases on ecosystem health and to prevent the entry of new damaging organisms into the country are:

  • investigations which improve understanding of the complex interactions between weeds / pests / diseases and the environment
  • to enable improved targeting and development of more effective control technologies and management options;
  • development and testing of integrated pest management strategies and models;
  • procurement of the support of MAF and other Government agencies in the development of a coherent research approach to help exclude weeds and pests from New Zealand and eradicate newly established weed and pest species;
  • identification of the range of taxonomic groups that, on establishment in New Zealand, could turn into major weeds, pests or diseases, even if they are benign in their native habitats;
  • establishment of the susceptibility of New Zealand plants to exotic pest species in overseas habitats (requires establishment of multilateral arrangements between New Zealand science community and its counterparts overseas);
  • development of contingency plans for both the procurement and use of pheromones as monitoring tools;
  • analysis of the full range of pesticides and biological agents available for weed and pest eradication (or control) operations in both urban and rural environments;
  • evaluation of the efficacies of pesticides against a range of taxonomic groups;
  • development of pesticide and weedicide application technologies from both ground and air in order to define their optimum configurations to minimise drift and increase cost effectiveness.

(ii) Risk Analysis and Modelling

This was rated as a very high priority ("A").

The evaluation of risks; both risks of new organisms establishing themselves nationally or regionally, or within an individual ecosystem, and the risks posed by different pests and diseases to ecosystems and human health; is a rapidly developing area of science. Risk analysis techniques and risk models are important tools. New Zealand appears to be lagging behind a number of other countries in the development and implementation of modern risk assessment techniques.

From an ecological point of view, there appears to be a gap in knowledge about the movement of invasive species to New Zealand and the nature of their establishment in this country. More is known about the impacts of invasive species in New Zealand but relatively little is known about how they arrive and how their initial establishment can be stopped.

Research requirements, in addition to the research areas listed in (i) above, are:

  • development of computer models in order to accommodate a range of pest phenologies, fecundities and voltinisms under a range of ecoclimatic zones and the use of these models to analyse the resilience of potential pest populations under various biotic and abiotic regimes;
  • development of computer models to analyse the likely effects of genetic bottle necks and stochastic events in founder populations under various biotic and abiotic combinations.

(iii) Control, Eradication, or Prevention

This was rated as a very high priority issue ("A").

The balance of research which needs to be invested in developing control strategies and technologies for the control, eradication or exclusion of pests and diseases not yet in New Zealand needs elucidation. This will emerge as progress is made with the research priorities in (i) and (ii) above and as broader policies and strategies to address pest control and other biosecurity issues are developed by central and local government organisations.

Maori concerns emphasise the threats to the destruction of native forest and the loss of plants caused by pests (eg possums) or by the spread and impact of exotic plant invasion and competition (weeds) threatening the native species. While these concerns also encompass the spread of diseases, such as Tb, to livestock, and threaten the health and well-being of people, there is also concern expressed at the impact of poison drops on waterbodies and their associated ecosystems.

(iv) Coordination of Activities and Provision of Information

This topic area has a high priority for operational issues, technology transfer and information dissemination. It has a lower priority for SLM research per se.

4.4 COASTAL, HARBOUR and ESTUARINE IMPACTS

This topic area was rated as a moderate ("B") priority in respect of SLM issues and research requirements, but for the northern North Island region it was rated much higher. This is not surprising considering the abundance and importance of harbours, estuaries and coastal inlets in this region, the importance placed on them by a large proportion of New Zealand's population and the increasing and concentrated impacts on coastal ecosystems from expanding urban environments.

Some of New Zealand's most sensitive ecosystems and most diverse faunas and floras are found in harbours, estuaries and coastal environments. These are commonly dynamic environments subject to tidal fluctuations, the interaction of marine and fresh water, and

the deposition of sediment and various pollutants in run-off from the land. Estuaries and harbours are particularly prone to pollution from intensified land use, urbanisation (sewage and polluted urban run-off) and industrial development. Harbours are also subject to the risk of pollution and introduction of new organisms through discharges by ships of effluents and ballast water.

The rapid, recent expansion within coastal environments of marine farming ventures, recreational activities and fishing, places additional pressures on coastal ecosystems.

In 1994 the Government produced a New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement (footnote 5: Department of Conservation. 1994. "Report and Recommendations of the Board of Enquiry into the NZ Coastal Policy Statement".) which outlines policies to help protect the natural character of the coastal environment and its ecosystems. The policy emphasises our relative lack of understanding about coastal processes and the effects of human activities on coastal processes.

These areas, and the potential for adverse impacts on them are of particular concern to Maori. Potential impacts arise from sewage outfalls; chemical spills; other forms of pollution; deposition of sediment and sometimes the impacts of fertilisers associated with those sediments. The potential impacts are wide ranging and may cause ecosystem degradation and contamination which adversely affect traditional food source areas - mahinga kai and kaimoana, mahinga mataitai, shellfish and fish breeding grounds, and also raise concerns for the well-being and health of people dependent on those areas.

Research requirements are:

  • investigations which improve understanding and knowledge about coastal ecosystems, the processes operating and their health;
  • investigations which identify those coastal ecosystems at risk from a range of impacts (nutrient and chemical pollution, invasive weeds, pests, bacteria, and sedimentation);
  • development of new systems, strategies and technologies to control or mitigate the impacts of urban and stormwater run-off on coastal ecosystems (part of the effort needs to involve transfer and application of overseas information to New Zealand situations).

4.5 URBANISATION and OTHER URBAN ISSUES

Nationally, this was seen as only a moderate priority ('B'), but was given a much higher priority ('A') in northern North Island assessments, where three specific issues - Urban Surface Water Quality; Urban Soil Health; and Urban Ecosystem Functioning and Health were all ranked as high to very high priority. As will be seen from the discussion, urban areas are the sources of many impacts on land and water systems. These impacts are magnified by the large and rapidly growing urban area and high concentrations of people in the northern North Island region.

The other "Urban Land Use" issue raised was the problem of expansion and intrusion of urban areas onto the more fertile flat lands which have the greatest versatility for intensive food production. Ranked only as a moderate to low priority overall, emphasis was given to the fact that impacts are felt on both the urban location and setting, and on the non-urban environment which surrounds it.

As has been referred to earlier (eg in the section on "Soil Erosion"), Maori concerns reflect those circumstances where larger scale modifications of landscapes may be involved; threats of change to or destruction of significant sites and landmarks, and detrimental effects to wahi tapu and ancestral sites. The impacts of urban growth and urban expansion are also frequently associated with detrimental impacts on coastlines, harbours, estuarines and waterways referred to in earlier sections.

Some research areas and topics relevant to urban areas are similar to (or a variation of) those identified earlier under the references to weeds and pests; surface water quality, protection of particular ecosystems; instream demands for water; and land application of effluent and wastes.

But there are other research topic areas and requirements which are related more specifically to the urban environment, and to the associated issues for SLM.

Research requirements include:

  • urban land use / density / urban form modelling and economic analysis to develop sustainable land use systems, which
  • integrate transport, infrastructure, water and drainage options, and provide for community / household impacts;
  • urban ecosystem capacity issues - resource requirements for additional population growth, land use implications and real costs of growth;
  • defining urban ecosystems, and researching ways whereby existing urban communities can function in more sustainable ways;
  • develop methodologies for advancing better decision making for sustainable use objectives, and for maximising community participation and involvement;
  • assessing the impacts of stormwater (including road run-off) on land and water ecosystems, and options to prevent, mitigate or remedy these problems.

5.0 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER PROCESS ISSUES

Two other priority areas were identified where research requirements and actions were necessary if the outcomes, objectives and results from SLM research were to be implemented.

These two priority areas are:

5.1 UNDERSTANDING, BEHAVIOUR, EDUCATION, and ADOPTION

This area is seen as having a very high priority ('A') when it comes to addressing the adoption of SLM approaches, the active promotion of such approaches and overcoming barriers to their adoption. While in the longer run, the acceptance of a participatory approach involving research users should reduce the problems associated with technology transfer, in the short to medium term there is a need to better understand the decision-making process, perceptions, and values of land users. Understanding why users make particular decisions and what types and forms of information they access, use and might find useful is important. This area of concern includes access to information and databases, ways of making information user-friendly, and the availability of appropriate methods to help the better transfer and application of information to achieve SLM objectives.

As referred to earlier in this paper (Sections 3 and 4), research on issues such as information and understanding should acknowledge the particular importance and role of traditional knowledge. Although not a concern exclusive to research on behaviour, education and adoption, the particular importance of traditional knowledge in identifying and focussing research efforts and in guiding the design of processes to promote the uptake and adoption of results, and in contributing to the protection of intellectual property rights associated with Maori interests, should be stressed.

Two broad types of research have been repeatedly identified as required for SLM:

  • the collection of social science base-line data for policy and management decision making;
  • the integration of information from social research within research and findings from physical and biological systems.

Other priority research areas include:

  • perceptions and behaviour (including the perceptions of different cultural and social groups) and how perceptions have changed through time;
  • understanding the range of values held by different groups and individuals with respect to the land, and the link between values and behaviour;
  • the role of institutional structures - including family groups, iwi, communities, management arrangements, and government and non-government agencies - on land management;
  • risk perception and risk communication;
  • conflict resolution and mechanisms to help promote behavioural change.

5.2 MONITORING, MEASURES and STANDARDS

This area includes aspects which were seen as being of a very high priority ('A') to SLM issues, including research and information and the development of appropriate systems for encouraging more SLM activities. There is a major need for valid and defensible information, the development of appropriate indicators and standards and the setting of confidence limits and recognition of the risks associated with them. The recording, maintenance and provision of ready access to relevant databases and information sources is a major requirement to achieve these objectives.

Appendix e: Potential New Zealand case studies for the CBD web site concerning agricultural biodiversity and forestry

 

Case study No. Potential
Case
Study
Topic		 CBD Keywords Ecolo-
-gical
impor-
-tance		 Econ-
-omic impor-
-tance		 Social impor-
-tance		 Availa-
-bility of infor-
-mation, under-
-standing & integr-
-ation		 Themes/notes Potential writer(s)
1 Review of
New Zealand
Integrated
ecological
landscapes
and
farming		 Landscape; land use; biogeography;agroecosyste; avifauna; invertebrates; exotic; indigenous; culture High Medium High HighLandscape systems and agroecosystems provide opportunities for increased biodiversity, increased profit and reduced risk. The opportunities are not being realised because of poor identification of the synergies that exist within landscape systems. Both reversion to indigenous forest and shrubland, and the planting of forest and shrublands of introduced species - often in association with riparian areas can provide for the habitat matrix necessary for much of both indigenous and introduced biodiversity. There are also important implications for New Zealanders relationship with the land (Meurk & Swaffield). Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin; Colin Meurk (Landcare Lincoln), Simon Swaffield (PO Box 84, Lincoln University)
2 Review of
New Zealand
Forestry		 Forestry High High High High The New Zealand forest industry, both indigenous and plantation have very little ecological information at their disposal on which to base management practices. New Zealand is a unique ecosystem where many of the imported theories and management practices may not be apply. Our aquatic fish species are mainly migratory and so landscape effects mask the effects of harvesting, stream macro-invertebrates are generalists (c.f. overseas where there is specialisation) so potentially less affected by forestry practices. The plantation forests provide a plethora of invertebrates species on which many of native bird species thrive. Therefore, plantation forests may provide a biodiversity resource. Here our biodiversity is under threat not only from habitat fragmentation/degradation and potentially harvesting practices but biodiversity is suffering (e.g. from the pressures of introduced species) even where the habitat is relatively untouched. We mainly manage exotic species and there is a "hands off" approach to the 'near natural' forestry used overseas. William Hamilton, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
3 Review of
New Zealand
Soil biota		 Soil biota High High Medium High A better general understanding of the affects of changing land use on the soil biota is required. Knowledge of the degree to which locality, soil and system can be used to extrapolate to status and attributes of the soil biota would be advantageous to land managers and conservationists. Some examples of positive effects of landscape diversity on production and conservation management could be shown. John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
4 Review of
New Zealand
Pollinators		 Pollinators; Honey bees; Other bees; Bird pollinators; Other pollinators; Wasps; Native flora Medium High Medium High Pollination in agricultural systems is potentially threatened by Varroa but there is comparatively little information that we can provide on the ecology and status of native bees. There are few obvious problems with failure of pollination for introduced and indigenous flora though little research is available to check. New Zealand therefore has a generally positive case study to tell, as well as a few useful cameos of bee stocking rates and impacts. Henrik Moller, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
5 Roads Landscape; Biogeography Medium High High High Reduced fragmentation (NB of woody vegetation not grass); Example of failure or lost opportunity; Assist Accessibility/education; roading continually disturbed (mimics NZ history); site of pesticide blitz; Obsession with "tidiness" in conflict with good management for biodiversity; opportunity to save maintenance costs and improve biodiversity; Local expert with international experience (Spellerberg); Aussie link (they do roadside seeding on a grand scale); Roads are outside the fence (protection from grazers); roads are particularly important part of agric (and forestry) landscape for biodiversity (as are fence lines - see Wratten material); Provide ecotones which are sites of increased biodiversity Ian Spellerberg, Lincoln University; Alex Wearing, Geography Dept. Otago University
6 Queen
Elizabeth II
National
Trust		 Landscape; Reserves; Biogeography; Governance; Capacity building; Pests; Weeds; Predators; New Zealand: Terrestrial; Aquatic; Culture High Low High High Excellent success story in combating fragmentation & capacity building amongst farming communities; shows potential power of voluntary funded mechanisms; shows value of a central system to facilitate action at a local level; demonstrates benefit of active management of small reserves; an example of building ecological corridors in Northland could be featured Tony Cossar, QEII National Trust, PO Box 3341, Wellington
7 Landcare
Trust		 Landscape; Biogeography; Culture; Capacity Building High Medium High High The Landcare Trust is one of two major vehicles in the best position to give long-term commitment to adaptive management processes on private farmland – principally through Landcare Groups. Nationally funded, with an interest in building the capacity of land managers to incorporate heterogeneity into their land for profit and pleasure. Important as a real example of building an ethic through partnership. The inclusion of environmental values AND economic & social values. Website www.landcare.org.nz . National co-ordinator Don Ross (Christchurch) with four regional co-ordinators Don Ross, Landcare Trust, P.O. Box 16269, Christchurch
8 Farm
forestry		 Landscape; Biogeography; Agroecosystems; Culture; Capacity Building; Avifauna; Invertebrates High High Medium High Farm forestry provides one of the best potential vehicles for improving biodiversity within productive landscapes through provision of insects especially. Trees do not compete for the best land within a far, preferring soils on hill faces and toe slopes (often associated with gullies and riparian areas). These represent high pastoral cost areas, with high environmental costs to streams, soils etc. Trees provide major positives in cashflow pattern (complementary patterns in cashflow as well as microsite). Benefits compounded by positives to rest of farm management - shelter - risk reduction, Integrated pest management, diversity of income. Forestry blocks can provide both corridors and patches, as well as remove grazing from indigenous areas (act as buffers). Potential not realised by agricultural authorities because of gross margin analytical approach - unsuited to a systems analysis. Farm foresters already own 20% plus of whole plantation estate as well as 1.3 million hectares of indigenous forestry (half of this 1.3 million is owned by Maori owners). Major pluses at landscape level - increase in shrub and herbaceous regrowth under canopy and around edges of stands. Potential not being embraced or promoted by MAF, DoC, Environmental groups . Systems perspective analysis can show benefits to farm economy AND environment - also social. Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin - John Edmonds
9 Bee keeping
and heather
in Tongariro		 Pollination; Honey bees; Weeds Low Medium Low Medium This is a major case of potential increased weed problems caused by beekeeping. Although centred on Tongariro National park, the issue is important in agricultural landscapes in general. The case study also highlights background issues of the role of introduced species (in this case honey bees) in providing ecosystem services in protected natural areas. Geoff Rogers (DoC Otago, PO Box 5244, Dunedin);
10 Beekeeping
in
honeydew
beech
forest		 Pollination; Honey bees; Bird pollinators Low Medium Medium Medium Enclaves of honeydew beech forest amongst pine plantations owned mainly by Carter Holt Harvey in the Canterbury area are also sites of intense beekeeping; The honeydew harvested by the honeybees is also an important food of native bird pollinators, especially bellbirds and tui (in the Nelson/Marlborough region). This case study is one of the only ones internationally that attempted to set acceptable honey bee stocking rates that would ensure that sufficient honeydew remained to not alter the birds preferred feeding and movement patterns. Aside from the value of this example for the international scene, the issue has low ecological importance for NZ because the area concerned is restricted and the ecological system involved is specialised. The economic importance is medium because a moderate number of beekeepers are earning considerable income from the resource. Henrik Moller, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
11 Beetle
banks		 Invertebrates; Biocontrol High High Low Medium Beetle banks involved retiring strips around and within crops (e.g. lucerne) to act as refugia for invertebrate predators of crop pests. An example of where maximising crop area incurred an economic cost, and where enhancing biodiversity reduced economic loss. John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
12 IPM in
an arable
system		 Pest control High High High High Integrated pest management although for several decades locked out of research and application by chemical companies is now regarded as the state of the art pest control. It still retains judicious use of chemicals based on an increased knowledge of the pests. There is a current move away from any inclusion of chemical controls but this is proving difficult to achieve. John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
13 Flatworms Soil Biota; Pastoral; Other countries; Biosecurity Medium High Low Medium New Zealand flatworms have invaded countries in Britain and Europe and are killing off their earthworms. There are potentially over a dozen species that could do likewise, but their autecology requires study. In New Zealand the earthworms of agricultural land are mostly exotic in origin. Changing arable management (i.e. non-tillage) is facilitating field invasion of earthworms.

 
14 Serratia
- Grass grub
control		 Soil biota; New Zealand; Biocontrol; High High High High Only case study to deal directly with native soil biota; ongoing research programme; understanding of process/ ecological context; delivery/manager involvement Maureen O'Callaghan, AgResearch, Lincoln
15 Rabbit
Calici
Disease		 Landscape; Pests; Predators; Biosecurity; Biocontrol; Grassland; Woody weeds High High High High Rabbits are keystone species in semi-arid agricultural landscapes, partly because of their grazing pressure and partly because they promote the abundance of introduced predators especially cats and ferrets in the ecosystem. The recent introduction of RCD and social issues surrounding it make an important international case study. The role of conservation/preservation groups in opposing the introduction and subsequent illegal introduction by farmers is a salutary lesson for biosecurity regulation in general. Morgan Williams, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, P.O. Box 10241, Wellington.
16 Rabbit
and Land
Management
Program		 Landscape; Ecosystem management; Pest control; Tussock grassland; Pastoral; Capacity building; Economics; Science; Monitoring Medium Medium High High This five-year program was a comprehensive example of best professional practice with many of the elements of an Ecosystem management approach to economic, social and ecological sustainability of pastoralism in semi-arid areas of South Island. Individual farm plans, self-monitoring schemes, science and education were used alongside government grants for pest control and land use change that would secure a longer-term sustainability for high country farming. Don Ross, Landcare Trust, P.O. Box 16269, Christchurch
17 Project
Crimson		 Landscape; ecology education High Medium High High A hierarchical approach to research working down from the large scale identified a loss of former cover, a demographic imbalance (lack of seedlings) the major agent as being possum rather than insects, and the major impact of the possum on the tree. This led to immediately applicable management controls and enhancement of this New Zealand icon, and in turn a public and sponsored campaign to replace the tree back around the NZ coastline. John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
18 Hedgerows
landscapes		 Landscape; Biogeography; Agroecosystems; Culture; Capacity Building; Avifauna; Invertebrates Medium Medium Low Medium Research mainly centred overseas, where it is a critical area of research on biodiversity within agroecosystems and for integrated pest management. Neglected in NZ. Associated with organic systems. Similar to roads in that provide a change from surrounding land use - resulting in provision of habitat both within woody vegetation and in herbaceous ley verges associated. Overwintering habitat for insect, habitat for birds and small mammals. Associated with shelter for agriculture. Peter Holland, Geography Department, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin.
19 Project
River
Recovery		 Landscape; Ecosystem management; Weeds; Pests; Predators; Aquatic; Terrestrial; Science; Monitoring Medium Medium High High Project River Recovery is one of New Zealand's largest restoration projects, but also an early leader in Ecosystem management approaches. It is centred on the braided riverbeds of the upper Waitaki and Mackenzie Basin. A large grant from an electricity company was paid to multiple stakeholders to integrate efforts of weed and pest control, restoration of rivers, public education and recreation. Much of the work of the PRR team involves liaison and capacity building in the local farming community. Kerry Brown, (Ecological consultant and manager of PRR until recently),
20 Burning
in tussock
grassland		 Landscape; Terrestrial; Tussock grassland; Burning; Governance High Medium High High Regular burning of tussock has been controversial and a source of conflict between farmers and conservationists in the semi-arid areas of South Island. A recent experiment test the putative ecological impacts of burning has been set up as a splendid co-operative effort (see research database). The debate of voluntary codes of practice c.f. regulation are illustrated as well as the need for a long-term sustainability vision and to work with the farming community rather than against it. Ian Paton (Landcare research, P.O. Box 69, Lincoln) and/or Marcus Simons (DoC Otago , P.O. Box 5244, Dunedin)
21 SILNA
forests		 Indigenous forestry; sustainability; Maori High High High Low SILNA (South Island Landless Native) land holdings are exempt from restrictions placed on other native forest. Much of the areas have already been cutover and considerable debate over the future directions is occurring. It is hoped that research being conducted on the biodiversity implications of management strategies may assist with the decision making Alan Reid, MAF
22 Possum /TB
Control by
poisoning		 Landscape; Pests; Predators; Pollution (toxicology) High High High Medium Large-scale poisoning targeting mainly possums and ferrets is the biggest national example of active intervention to control pests in broadly agricultural landscapes. Other predators (rats, mice, hedgehogs) are also poisoned. Research is still needed to understand the biodiversity consequences/benefits from this massive and continuous intervention, but a suite of studies can attest to the impacts of the toxins on several animals in the system. This case study could be cross-linked to the Possums case study already provided for the alien species programme. Charlie Eason, Landcare Research, P.O. Box 69., Lincoln; Paul Livingston, AHB, P.O. Box 3412, Wellington; Henrik Moller, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin.
23 Possum
Biocontrol
Attempt		 Landscape; Pests; Predators; Biocontrol High High High Medium Since 1992 New Zealand has invested about $30 million in finding a biocontrol for possums. This high-risk initiative is a salutary lesson to other countries of what is needed to mount a biocontrol programme against a mammalian pest. If successful the project has enormous environmental, economic and social benefits. This case study could be cross-linked to the Possums case study already provided for the alien species programme. Doug Wright, Convenor, Possum/Tb NSSC, 32A Arcus
St, Hamilton.
24 Rare
plants in
grassland		 Agroecosystem Medium Low Low Medium There are difficult conservation management requirements for some rare herbs such as Leptinella nana. These may exist in isolated populations and be dependent on a degree of disturbance to create suitable habitat, but are vulnerable to over-disturbance or to invasion of potential habitat by exotic herbs. David Given Lincoln University
25 Kiwi in
Taitokerau
pine
plantations		 Forestry; Avifauna; Exotic; BMP High Medium High Medium An icon conservation species, the brown kiwi prospers in northland pine forests but is declining further south in its range. This is a splendid example of an endangered species being supported by exotic habitat but where examination of several ways that forestry practice might threaten or could enhance conservation is necessary. Ray Pearce, Wildland's Consultants, Whangarei.
26 Pukekohe
vege
growers		 soil, agroecosystem; pollution; erosion; tillage High High High Medium Vegetable growers formed a cooperative with researchers and local government to successfully counter erosion, nitrate pollution and other negative effects of intensive land use. An excellent example of integration of interest groups guided by research. Not focussed on biodiversity as such, but rather on soil structure and retention. Prue Williams
27 Kowhai
farm:
The
Selwyn
Stewardship Monitoring Scheme		 Monitoring; landscape; social; education; foodwebs High High High High This is one of the few integrated studies of an arable farm where economic ecological and social factors are being investigated. Of particular note is that a suite of biological indicators (including invertebrates) are being monitored in conjunction with farm energetics. In addition to farmer involvement the study involves collaboration from several research providers. Steve Wratten, Lincoln University,
28 Kiwifruit
pollination		 Pollination; Honey bees Low Medium Low High A heated debate on the value of honey bees as pollinators of kiwifruit exposes several of the issues about the pollination efficacy of introduced honey bees on specialised crops. The case has an unusual twist in the parallel development of a machine to improve pollination by blowing bee collected pollen onto the vines has been developed. This could illustrate the mechanisation issues and pollinators - can we do with less in situ pollinators in future? The case is rated low ecological importance because of the low coverage of the crop, but moderate economic value because it is a large export earner. Mark Goowin, Crop research, Hamilton: John Craig, School of marine & Environmental Science, Auckland University.
29 Whole
farm
plans		 Agroecosystem; Landscape; Education High High High High This large-scale educational scheme involved integration of a large number of interest groups, guided by research and directed at soil structure and retention through appropriate land use for the various land types of the region. It has been of tremendous importance not just for the immediate area but nationally, because it replaced property boundaries as management decision boundaries. In so doing it enabled 'appropriate land use' to be defined at landscape/regional/national levels. It has been feeding into the Taranaki Regional Council 'whole farm plans' - where support is offered to landowners to plan appropriate land use. There has been a rapid uptake of the support - with over 400 farm plans in operation at the end of 1999. Alec McKay, AgResearch, Palmerston North.
30 Maori
organic
gardeners		 Indigenous peoples; Maori; Soil fertilisation; Organic Agriculture Low Medium High ? A coalition of Maori organic gardeners could offer an example of kaitikitanga in action in a modern agricultural market-driven environment. Te Waka Kai Ora (Maori organics Networks), Dargy@shaddowfax.whanganui.ac.nz
31 Taieri
River
study		 Landscape; Landuse; Aquatic High High High High Taieri as the key case study for research land use and effects on aspects of aquatic ecosystems/hydrology etc. Major long-term research programme as an example of what is required for understanding landscape systems. A large amount of research material researched to date. A deep study of a single catchment within a number of disciplines. Colin Townsend, Department of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin
32 Development
of a Land
Ethic in
New Zealand		 Landscape; Land use, Maori High Medium High High From Given's 1995 paper "Forging a Biodiversity Ethic in a Multicultural Context" Biodiversity and Conservation 4 (8): 877-891. Polynesian immigrants brought to New Zealand a distinctive world view which gave rise to both tribal traditions and living traditions of the Maori. The resultant environmental ethic emphasises guardianship and stewardship, establishment of the right to use a resource, kinship obligations, and a balance between pairs of opposites. Nineteenth-century European colonists were ambivalent in their view of the environment, although a world view which emphasises 'dominion' has tended to dominate. Two recent developments which are important factors in development of a multicultural biodiversity ethic are the enactment of the Resource Management Act 1991 and legal recognition of the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. The intersection of these developments provides an opportunity to develop a new approach to environmental ethics especially in conceptualising 'significance', consultative processes, and developing a holistic and ecocentric use of resources. David Given PO Box 84 Lincoln University
33 Erosion Landscape; Agroecosystem High High Medium High Erosion is related to biodiversity through impacts on soil systems and aquatic systems - and relationships of deforestation for pastoral development. The retention of woody vegetation for erosion control has effects through the systems - including to an improvement in edaphic, terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity and habitat. Andrew Wilson, MAF
34 Wilding
Pines		 Landscape; Forestry; Weeds; Exotic High Medium Medium High Wilding pines are perceived to involve a risk to high country biodiversity - especially in relation to tussock grassland areas. Some species are particularly well suited to spread, with ranges that extend above Nothofagus treeline (Pinus contorta). The role of wilding trees in providing for indigenous biodiversity is poorly researched. There are occasions where they could be beneficial ecologically - e.g. nurse for indigenous forest regeneration. Mid Dome dilemma where initially planted for erosion control and now being removed. Future effects on erosion unclear. Public perception varies widely as to appeal of wildings. Good research on assessment and control. Good example of where authorities can (and sometimes do) work together for a particular goal. Nick Ledgard, Forest Research, Ilam, Christchurch
35 Manuka –
oils + honey		 Landscape; Forestry; Culture Medium Medium Low Unknown Example of a commonly reverting species which has in the past been considered a weed to be removed prior to pasture or forest establishment. Increasing the value of areas to land owners increases the chances of their management and care. The rise in value of manuka is a case in point. The value of manuka oil and honey for medicinal purposes could result in its retention - or encouragement - within a landscape. Ethnobotanical dimension.

 
36 Organic
Pest
control		 Landscape; Culture; Landuse High Low Medium   "Organics" is fast becoming an important aspect of alternative production in the agricultural and cultural framework of New Zealand. The benefits to society and biological systems of going "organic" have been touted to the public but there has been very little research into such claims. One aspect of organics is the control of pests by non-chemical means, such as complimentary planting. But is the organic system benefiting from neighbours supplying the pest control. Is the pest control and economic advantages from not using chemicals a result of a "better" approach or a result of being situated within a landscape where others are protecting your patch by their chemical pest control inputs. Are organic systems benefiting from living off the pig's back of non-organic chemical control systems?

 
37 Safety
testing of
proposed
biocontrol agents: the case of soil weevils		 Soil Biota; Pastoral; Biosecurity High High Low Medium Economic damage to the productive sector influence the context within which safety testing of biocontrol agents is viewed. One such example was the early importation of a parasite of the Argentine stem weevil, which, although it was found to attack some native weevils in the laboratory was still released because of the enormous economic damage to pastoral farming that the weevil was estimated as inflicting. The context must be able to influence the decision. Steve Goldson, and/or Barbara Barrett, AgResearch Lincoln and Invermay.
38 Effluent
disposal		 Soil; Pollution; Nitrogen processing High High High Medium Effluent/waste disposal was rated by the NSS as being of top concern. It involves ecological, economic and social aspects and has been developing rapidly into a major industry around the world. In New Zealand it particularly concerns animal wastes and the filtration of nitrogen from water runoff. Several practical approaches to the problem have been applied John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
39 Use of
ecological
corridors
in forestry		 Landscape; Forestry; Connectedness; Avifauna; Indigenous; exotic High Medium High Medium The Rahui saddle near Reefton was retained as an ecological corridor within a pine and beech forest mosaic. More recent debates and reserves created in the Westland area of South Island have used the corridors and ecological connection arguments in boundary and allocation decisions. Colin O'Donnell, DoC, Private Bag, Christchurch.
40 Management
of
lowland
small
reserves		 New Zealand; Landscape High High High Medium Small lowland reserves form the last remnants of the New Zealand landscape in many areas of New Zealand. They also form provide a number of success stories for NZ biodiversity where there is sympathetic management of buffer zones and a well managed exotic vertebrate pest control. These have often worked best around flagship species such as kokako in Mapara Brian Molloy, Ecological Consultant, Christchurch.
41 Clematis
vitalba		 Landscape; Reserves; weeds; Biocontrol; capacity building; Education High Medium High High Clematis vitelba is probably the single greatest threat to small lowland reserves in the North island. Excellent research has guided control by conventional means and biocontrol attempts are underway. A hugely successful community awareness campaign involving school children, DoC and the Regional Councils has spurred mass action from community grass roots. An economic survey demonstrated that New Zealanders would be prepared to pay at least $60 million extra per year to solve the vitelba problem. Carol West, DoC Southland, P.O. Box 743, Invercargill.
42 Fire-induced
Pakihi		 Landscape; Land use; Terrestrial Medium Low High Medium Some pakihi areas of Canterbury and Westland are natural and others are fire induced, partly because of inappropriate aspirations for farming the land. The resulting boggy areas are useless for farming but excellent sites for biodiversity. Peter Williams has characterised the biodiversity values and appropriate management. It is an example of the biodiversity values of marginal farmlands considered "waste" by others. Peter Williams, Landcare research, Private Bag 6, Nelson.
43 Monowai
–
Dracophyllum		 New Zealand; Landscape; succession High Low Low Medium Monoao (Dracophyllum subulatum) is an early successional indigenous systems dependent upon a modicum of disturbance to maintain the little remaining habitat. But such disturbance now opens the way for exotic invasion creating a tricky management dilemma Mark Smale, Landcare Research, Hamilton
44 Cromwell
Chafer
beetle		 Landscape; Invertebrate; Landuse; Pest control High Low Low Medium The Cromwell chafer beetle is an endangered endemic species with a very localised population range. Most of its population is restricted to an area of riverine sand dune surrounded by plantation forest and agricultural land. This reserve was set up to protect the species and to provide a site for relocating other populations that were threatened by landuse changes. Within the Central Otago region there are other similar endangered species potentially suffering the same threats from habitat change caused by landuse priorities. This and the other species are also potentially threatened by introduced mammals such as the hedgehog. William Hamilton, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
45 Little
owls		 Landscape; Landuse; Pest control Medium Low Low   Little owls were introduced by farmers to control granivorous birds (fiches and sparrows). They now inhabit extensive areas of South Island farmland and are known to eat native birds and insects. Little is known of their ecology and ecological impacts. Henrik Moller, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
46 PNA
programme		   High High High High The PNA programme identified many remnant indigenous systems worthy of protection, but often these are on private land. This can lead to conflict with land owners who, although often forced to pay rates on the land, may be prevented by the environment court from using this land for other economic purposes. Solutions to the situation must be found quickly. Brian Molloy, Ecological Consultant, Christchurch.
47 Upland
game
harvesting:
habitat
and 1080
poisoning
issues		 Landscape; Ecosystem management; Pollution Low Low Low Low There is widespread concern that upland game are being poisoned by use of 1080 poisons for rabbit and possum control. The upland game need cover and a mosaic of habitats that could be integrated in an agricultural landscape and indirectly promote other biodiversity. Relatively few hunters pursue upland game (mainly Californian Quail and Chuquor) so the case study has relatively low importance for New Zealand, but it is a useful example of how recreational harvests can indirectly promote biodiversity in broadly agricultural landscapes, and the way poisoning for agricultural protection values could compromise that benefit. Colin Ogle (DoC, Wanganui) and/or Billy Hamilton (Ecosystems Consultants, P.O. Box 6161, Dunedin).
48 Fish &
Game
movement		 Landscape; Aquatic; Reserve; Restoration Medium Medium Medium High Fish & Game New Zealand is the organisation with the statutory responsibility for the sports of freshwater sport fishing and game bird hunting. They are an important organisation in the protection of the habitats of sports fish and game birds. They provide practical information on effective riverbank management to landowners and the public. They carry out research into the effects of different landuses on the aquatic system and in many cases are involved in the RMA process. They have a membership of approximately 157,000 and use 17$ of their annual budget of $6 million for habitat protection. Bryce Jonston, CEO, Fish & Game New Zealand, Wellington.
49 Ducks
unlimited		 Landscape; Aquatic; Reserve; Restoration Medium Low Low Medium This organisation is a voluntary membership-based society dedicated to the conservation of New Zealand wetlands through: wetland restoration and development, conservation programmes for threatened waterfowl, advocacy and education of wetland values. By these means they seek to ensure the ethical and sustainable use of wetland resources by all existing and future users. Ducks Unlimited commits both funds and expertise to wetland conservation throughout New Zealand. They own over 1100 acres of valuable wetland in Otago and Wairarapa, and have helped preserve and restore hundreds more acres in the Wairarapa, Manawatu, Bay of Plenty, Waikato and Northland regions. These areas not only benefit waterfowl but also other birds, fish and plants. Ducks Unlimited, PO Box 9795, Newmarket, Auckland
50 New Zealand
Game Bird
Habitat
Trust		 Landscape; Aquatic; Reserve; Restoration High Low Medium Medium A surcharge on the Hunting license for the "Duck stamp" and a parallel collection of the art featured on the stamps is dedicated to a game Bird Habitat trust fund. This money is distributed to applicant mainly for restoring wetlands and game-bird habitat, often by farmers. About 10 such projects are undertaken each year. It is an approach rather like the Queen Elisabeth II National Trust to assist voluntary habitat protection and enhancement. It is a useful example of how recreational harvests can indirectly promote biodiversity in broadly agricultural landscapes. Murray Williams, DoC, P.O. Box 10420, Wellington.
51 Meuhlembeckia
australis
–
problem
or asset?		 Ecology; Concepts; Education; Restoration High Low Medium Low M. australis is a forest edge scrambling vine whose ecological role is forest wind protection. Current restoration efforts are frustrated by the vine because it climbs over new plantings. So it is treated as an exotic weed. Richard Hill, (past leader of gorse biocontrol research, now ecological consultant), Private Bag 4704, Christchurch
52 Gorse
control		 Landscape; Weeds; Biocontrol High High Medium High Gorse is a very important plant in NZ's agricultural landscapes. It is considered a weed to farmers wanting to maximise production or prevent reversion of marginal farmland to scrub, but it also minimises erosion and can act as a nursery crop for native regeneration in some areas (perhaps not in others). Large sums are expended on chemical controls with potential attendant pollution problems. A long-standing high profile biocontrol programme is in late stages so Integrated Pest Management is becoming a reality. Splendid science research has assisted management. Richard Hill, (past leader of gorse biocontrol research, now ecological consultant), Private Bag 4704, Christchurch
53 Broom
control		 Landscape; Weeds; Biocontrol Medium High Low High Broom is an important plant in NZ's agricultural landscapes. It is considered a weed to farmers wanting to maximise production or prevent reversion of marginal farmland to scrub, but it also minimises erosion and can act as a nursery crop for native regeneration in some areas (perhaps not in others). Large sums are expended on chemical controls with potential attendant pollution problems. A long-standing high profile biocontrol programme is in late stages so Integrated Pest Management is becoming a reality. Splendid science research has assisted management. The broom case study is judged marginally less important to the gorse equivalent because broom is less widespread in the landscape at the moment, but potentially more important in the longer run. Pauline Syrett, Landcare Research, P.O. Box 69, Lincoln.
54 Grass grub Soil biota High High Low High Grass grub has historically been the most important insect pest of the pastoral landscape. A huge investment has been made over the years on chemical control, and, in early years, on searching for biological controls overseas. This approach was taken in the context of an extensive pastoral landscape with no native vegetation remnants. Current control is based increasingly on application of Serratia, an indigenous bacteria. The research program surrounding this has been an outstanding success, leading to broader based research along both basic and applied lines. Other possible insect parasitoids were not considered because their ecology requires a landscape integrated with native vegetation. It is possible that reintegration of the pastoral and indigenous landscape may open up other possibilities for grass grub control. John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
55 Brodificoum in pine forests Forestry; Avifauna; Exotic; BMP; Pest control High High High Medium Forest Stewardship Council certification recommendations require certified forests to be free of chemical based poisons. In New Zealand the threat from introduced mammals on forest biodiversity means that certified forests here, have to gain exemptions to use such poisons. Brodifiacoum is one such poison which has immense potential for controlling introduced pests but also can persist in the environment for a long time. Because of its persistence and the lack of knowledge as to its sub-lethal effects on non-target species (e.g. humans, deer, pigs, kiwi), there is concern for its use. Yet the same characteristics lend it to controlling target pests through both primary and secondary poisoning. The value of using this poison to enhance forest biodiversity and the spin-off effects across the landscape have not been studied in detail so far. William Hamilton, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
56 Current planting of trees is removing grazer pressure Agroecosystem; Forestry High High High Medium The current widespread planting of former pastoral land with exotic trees is proving a life saver for remnant bush patches because of the removal of the animals grazing the regeneration. There are also other positive aspects for biodiversity. John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
57 Whitebait Landscape; Forestry; Aquatic; High Medium High High The whitebait industry in New Zealand depends upon adults spawning (usually in forested streams), and the young being able to migrate out to sea and back. Any impediment to this migration, either through loss of habitat, loss of up-stream passage or reduction in water quality can cause decreased and relocated whitebait runs. It has been suggested that reductions in whitebait 'run' has resulted from forestry, mining and agricultural practices. Any research into such effects must look at the overall landscape (catchment) as downstream processes will affect the suitability of upstream habitat. William Hamilton, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
58 Cabbage tree – sudden decline New Zealand; Landscape; Research Medium Medium High Medium Declining health of an indigenous icon. Demographic survey showed trees remaining on farming landscape dated back to time of breaking land in and being above stock feeding height. Also showed susceptibility to changes in water regimes. Flowering and seeding intensity increased from late 80's with heavy flowering every year since, despite a Maori story implying that this was not a constant occurrence. Division in researcher opinion over cause, with some believing it to be an MLO like that causing flax yellows. Evidence for this is not strong. Gordon Hosking, Tikitere, RD 4, Rotorua
59 Vegetation buffers for yellow-eyed penguin protection Landscapes; Reserves; Ecosystem Management; Predators; Threatened species Medium Low Medium Medium Yellow-eyed penguins are a high profile regionally threatened species in Otago and Southland. Remnant breeding colonies are mainly in small reserves amidst farmland. A strategy of 'vegetation buffer zones" was instigated where grassland was fenced off around the breeding areas in an attempt to remove rabbits and/or create a "grass-wall" to deter predators of the penguins (stoats, ferrets, cats). The buffer zones of long grass seeded and nurtured insects, which in turn nurtured mice that attracted stoats that ate the penguins. The cover also fostered more stoats. These ecosystem effects neutralised the intended habitat benefits from vegetation buffers and may even have made predation worse. Henrik Moller, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
60 Ngai Tahu Treaty of Waitangi redress processes Landscape; Governance; Indigenous peoples; Maori Medium Medium High Medium The Ngai Tahu claim has recently been settled and includes several mechanisms to assert the kaitiaki (environmental guardianship) role of Maori throughout most of the South Island. Several cameos of co-management and capacity building could be illustrated, from involvement in threatened species recovery programmes, creation of Nohanga sites (reserves allowing access to mahinga kai - natural resources - in the agricultural landscape), management of wetlands impacted by agricultural land uses, use of traditional Environmental Knowledge for management. The Ngai Tahu claim is a splendid one to feature because it was settled early, covers a vast area, and active escalation of the kaitiaki role is already evident. There is scope for several case studies under this umbrella. Trevor Howse, Ngai tahu, Private Bag, Christchurch.
61 Waiau Mahika Kai trust Landscape; Governance; Indigenous peoples; Maori; Wetlands; Education Medium Low High Medium This trust is a Maori led initiative running parallel to the main Waiau trust co-ordinated mainly by Southland Fish & Game. As such it is a potentially valuable case study of kaitiakitanga in action and the way it differs or has commonalties with a eurocentric approach to river/land use management. An upcoming restoration project (the "Jericoe Project") will put into place a Maori styled reserve where traditional ecological knowledge for sustainable use of native plants and animals will be featured. Gail Tipa, manager, Waiau Mahika Kai Trust,
62 Maori Resource Management initiatives Landscape; Governance; Indigenous peoples; Maori High Medium High Medium Several iwi-based resource management agencies are springing up. An early and therefore well-experienced example is the Otago coalition of Papitipu runaka who have written a resource management plan and operate a parallel agency to assess ecological, cultural and economic proposals in much the same way that Regional councils do. Edward Ellison, director, Ki Otago, Otakou, RD 2 Portobello, Dunedin.
63 Giant Weta surviving in gorse Indigenous invertebrates; exotic habitat Medium Low Low Medium Interesting case of a population of a rare - only recently described invertebrate being dependent upon an exotic 'weed' system (gorse), influenced by an exotic problem vertebrate (goats) John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
64 Hinewai – active restoration Landscape; restoration; exotic; Pastoral High Low High Medium former farmland being 'passively managed back to indigenous largely via a nurse crop of gorse. Pertains to low input restoration of systems within landscapes Hugh Wilson, Hinewai reserve, Banks Peninsular
65 Grazing in reserves Landscape; restoration; exotic; Pastoral High Medium High Medium Light grazing of reserves has been justified by several researchers for the reduction of rank grass growth and therefore the retention of some low growing native herbs in unimproved grassland. Several DoC reserves have been grazed, largely as the result of historical leasing arrangements. However not all plants are equally palatable and stock can quickly remove the more 'tasty' species. In native forest remnants this often leads to an unnoticed removal of regeneration of the woody species, and therefore potentially of the complete forest remnant. This situation has been documented for pohutukawa and cabbage trees and can be seen in any unfenced bush remnants in the pastoral landscape. Land use integration will depend on good grazing control. John Hutcheson, 2 Wharetoroa Drive, RD 4, Rotorua
66 Ecological effects of irrigation Landscape; Landuse; Aquatic; BMP High Medium Medium High Drawing off water from rivers for irrigation has the potential to adversely affect freshwater fish abundance. Another problem is irrigation systems open up habitat previously unavailable to both native and introduced fish (e.g. Central Otago water races) species. It is unclear at present what the effects are to native biodiversity but it is important that operational practices are introduced to limit such effects - eg water use efficiency, protocols for low flows. William Hamilton, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
67 Dairy conversion Landscape; BMP; Land use High High High High This is one of the most important issues in New Zealand today. Conversion of land to dairy farming can have severe impacts on the quality of the freshwater and potentially marine ecosystems. Case study on the intensification of land use, its drivers, its effects, what mitigation is occurring, associated habitat loss, RMA approach (some have suggested that dairy farming is more like an urban factory than farming, and should face the same RMA hurdles). Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin - John Edmonds
68 Harakeke management and restoration: an Enthnobotany case study Landscape; ecosystem Management; Indigenous peoples; Maori; Riparian Medium Low Medium High Harakeke (flax) is a widespread plant in NZ's agricultural landscapes. It is important in riparian management and is an excellent nectar source for honeyeater birds. It is also an important weaving plant for Maori. An excellent research and breading programme has involved the traditional knowledge of Maori and husbandry techniques. Sue Scheele, Landcare Research, P.O. Box 69, Lincoln.
69 Kumara: retaining the genetic stock of culturally important foods Landscape; Ecosystem Management; Indigenous peoples; Maori; Riparian Low Low Medium Medium Kumara, a taonga of Maori were originally taken to a Japanese seed bank. Strident efforts amongst several Maori led to the stock being returned to New Zealand. Sue Scheele, Landcare Research, P.O. Box 69, Lincoln; and Del Wihongi, Auckland.
70 Goat / cattle / horse / sheep genetic resources Genetic Resources Low Medium Low Medium It is estimated that offshore islands of New Zealand hold (or held - some populations have been eradicated) a third of the world's remaining feral populations of earlier domestic breeds of stock. The populations were founded by early mariners, sealers and whalers in the 19 century. They may provide valuable genetic variation that has been bred out of domestic stock during intensification of agriculture on populated lands. M.R. Rudge, 56 Waitohu Rd., York Bay, Eastbourne.
71 Kaimanawa horses Landscape; Social; Education; Pest control Medium Low High Medium Horses (feral exotic vertebrates) were damaging vulnerable indigenous plants - camping in areas of particularly vulnerable species. However DoC unable to control them because of human horse-lover intervention. A difficult social management task. Geoff Rogers (DoC Otago, PO Box 5244, Dunedin);
72 Farmer pasture inventory plots Landscape; capacity building; monitoring High Medium High High Will Allen & Okie Bosch have worked with high-country farmers to develop a standardised vegetation monitoring method for farmers to apply on their own farms. Decision support packages have been developed to help grazing, fire and weed management. Ockie Bosche, Landcare Research, Alexandra.
73 Hieracium Landscape; Pastoralism; Tussock grassland; Weeds High Medium High High Hieracium is the main weed threat to modified and grazed high country grassland. There has been much debate on the relative importance of overgrazing, rabbits and fire as agents that increase the weeds dominance. There is a considerable literature on their effects and management. Susan Walker, Landcare Research, Lincoln.
74 Long-term monitoring of vegetation in modified tussock grassland farms Landscape; Pastoralism; Tussock grassland; Weeds High Medium High High Species composition and cover has been monitored in the Mackenzie Basin since the early 1990s by a Landcare Research team in collaboration with DoC. This is an example of the need for long-term systematic monitoring to track broad scale ecosystem changes in managed landscapes. Colin Meurk, Landcare research, P.O. Box 69, Lincoln.
75 Barriers to trout from forestry roads Forestry; Aquatic; BMP High Low High Medium Forestry codes of practice suggest that fish passages be supplied wherever roading interrupts the flow of waterways. In New Zealand the impact of such an accepted approach may be catastrophic to native fish populations. While overseas fish passages are important in New Zealand many of our native fish populations are restricted to areas where salmonids (trout, salmon) are excluded. By providing fish passages forest managers may be introducing salmonids into areas they were cut off from. Therefore it may be that we provide barriers to exotic fish passage to maintain our biodiversity in streams. Richard Allibone, NIWA, Hamilton
76 Koura Landscape; Landuse; Aquatic; Culture; Indigenous people Medium Low Medium Low Freshwater crayfish (koura) are a cultural important 'taonga species' for Ngai Tahu and potential indicator species for stream health. Colin Townend, Zoology department, Universoity of Otago. P.O. Box 56, Dunedin.
77 Tuna (eels) Landscape; Landuse; Culture; Indigenous people; Aquatic High High Medium Medium Eels are our largest native freshwater predator (during part of their life history). They are also our main native freshwater commercial fish species. Eels also remain a highly valued traditional food to Maori. Conversion of forest to pasture and vice versa can affect the abundance of eel species and the species community composition in streams. Current management practice in forestry and agriculture makes no special provisions for this important species. William Hamilton, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
78 Nodding thistles Landscape; Landuse; Weeds Medium Medium Low Medium Nodding thistle Integrated Pest Management is well illustrated with scientific research and mathematical modelling. David Kelly, Botany Department, university of Canterbury, Christchurch.
79 Introduced trees for kereru (e.g. elms, tagasaste) Landscape; Forestry; Biogeography; Exotic; Avifauna High Low High Medium Kereru are predominantly fruit eaters, eating the fruits of at least 70 species of plants. They are probably the last remaining large seed distributor in New Zealand. This species has gained a threatened status due to declines in abundance in the top half of the North Island (Clout, et al. 1995; Pierce, et al. 1993; Mander, et al., 1998; James and Clout, 1999). Although they reach their greatest densities in mature podocarp forests they can also be found feeding and nesting in urban parks, exotic forests and gardens. Because of their importance as large seed dispersers it may be necessary to supplement their diet with exotic fruits and appropriate tree species. There has been suggestion that introduced trees such as elms can meet some of their demands especially during seasonal fluctuations in native food. Mick Clout, School of Environmental and Marine Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland.
80 Nitrogen fixation soil biota; forestry; Landscape; Land use High High High Low A major cost in economic production can be the supply of nitrogen. Although in many areas urea is used, in others (such as the pastoral landscape) it is approached via nitrogen fixing plants (i.e. clover). The use of the native plants able to fix nitrogen (Coriaria spp.) may also offer alternatives to the plantation forest industry. Previously this has not been attractive because of their toxicity to stock, however current management regimes may be more amenable. Warwick Sylvestor, Biological Sciences, University of Waikato, Private Bag, Hamilton.
81 Mining phosphates from Nauru Pacific; New Zealand; Landscape; Ecosystem Management High High High ? An excellent example of the way globalisation and transportation has altered land use patterns and ecology could be the New Zealand/Nauru fertiliser mining example. Accumulated phosphates from a small island are being mined and used to push productivity over large areas of New Zealand, with attendant problems in fertility and pollution. William Hamilton, Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin
82 Eucalypt forest Forestry; Exotic; Australia Medium Medium Low Medium Many eucalypt species are well suited New Zealand. There is a developing interest in the growth of these species for both ends of the wood value continuum - as a source of short fibre pulp for writing papers, and for high value furniture. A key risk is the biosecurity risk associated with NZ sitting "downwind" of Australia, with imported insects, fungi etc. which can cause problems for management. This is exacerbated by potential pest species being difficult to recognise, because they may not represent problems within their own ecosystems with natural controls in place. Represents an example of the isolation of a tree species away from its home range being both higher producing in another environment, but also potentially open to greater risk because the rest of the biodiversity of the original system is not present. Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin
83 Threatened species, Ecotourism and farming: Yellow-eyed penguins in Otago threatened species; Economics; capacity building Medium High High Medium Private profit from tourism have lead to significant reestablishment of breeding habitat on the Otago Peninsula. People doing this are not only extracting profits from the very successful tourism operation, but also putting the profits back into penguin conservation efforts. The original problem arises out of economic forces in agriculture and the case study is economically driven. The case also exemplifies many of the principles of endangered species conservation that are obvious to economists, but others have yet to come to grips with Rob Alexander, Massey university, Private Bag, Palmerston North.
84 Pine felling strategies Forestry; Exotic; BMP High High Low High Forestry operational practices have improved greatly over the last two decades from a stand level perspective. The emphasis has been on soil and water values. From a landscape biodiversity point of view, the situation is different. There is potential improvement to be made in harvest planning at a landscape level to improve biodiversity effects. Rotation age and retention of seed sources are also important considerations. Relates to Guidelines for biodiversity retention in plantation forests. Ian Spellerberg, David Given? Lincoln University. Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin
85 Restoration and the role of enhancement practices and introduced species Forestry; Landscape; Exotic; Indigenous High Medium Medium Medium Indigenous forest restoration is important but in lands that have been left deforested for years rehabilitation may require a boost from the use of quick growing exotic trees, planting of colonising species, introduction of a seed bank, thinning management, fertilisation. In the same way restoration of remnants for bird use may have to enhanced by the introduction of tree and shrub species that provide food in the way of berries, fruit and nectar. In many cases introduced species can fit the "bill" in more ways than one. There is research here (Canterbury) and overseas (e.g. Australia) that has investigated forest/landscape restoration techniques but there needs to be a review of what practical approaches can be made to make restoration a less of a hit and miss affair. William Hamilton, Chris Perley: Ecosystems Consultants Ltd., PO Box 6161, Dunedin and Perley and Associates
86 Best Management Practices and Codes of Practice in Forestry Forestry; Exotic; Monitoring; BMP High High High High Use of Codes of Practice for forestry operations (NZ Forest Code of Practice) - site preparation, establishment, planting, chemical use, tending, roading, harvesting, etc.  A PROCESS document which supposed to lead managers to identify and consider all the issues related to a specific operation (though deficiencies there in that scale is too small - as have discussed) and then to choose the right one (so doesn't dictate an action by rules - but provides a PROCESS to make a locally applicable decision).  Follow up is monitoring --> new information/learning.  Leads to good operational management in relation to soil conservation, and instream ecological values (for the most part) - capacity building of operational managers to environmental concerns.  Focus is on operations rather than catchment planning.  Focus as yet is not on biodiversity - terrestrial vs. aquatic. A number of codes of practice or procedural guidelines are in place in private forest companies. Peter Handford, Forme consulting, Wellington
87 Part IIIA Forests Act (1949) Indigenous Management Provisions - Sustainable Management plans & permits Forestry; Indigenous; BMP; Policy High Medium High High Indigenous forestry sustainable management plans and permits.  Private indigenous forest owners are required to provide a sustainable management plan for sustainable management of indigenous forest.  In it they have to consider the "natural values" - and lots of other nice things relating to sustainable management.  Trouble is it is not precise - and there are few provisions for effective integrated monitoring of the ecosystem in association with management. IFU; Udo Benecke, 32 Huntsbury Ave Christchurch; Colin O'Loughlin, PO Box 28 138, Christchurch
88 Dispersal of seeds Forestry; Landscape; Land use; Avifauna High High Medium Medium Seed dispersal is a key ecological function within the landscape. In NZ several indigenous plant species rely upon other species for their dispersal - e.g. pigeons for dispersal of podocarp drupes. Important consequences for restoration and ecological health of the landscape is to ensure such key functions are maintained, or else structural components of regenerating forest will change radically over time. Much of application of biogeography in a fragmented landscape is concerned with identifying these key functions and providing for them through spatial configuration of patches and connecting habitat, provision of habitat for vectors, species composition, etc. Peter Williams, Landcare Research, Private Bag 6, Nelson.
89 Are weeds good or bad for biodiversity? Forestry; landscape; Exotic; Indigenous; Weeds High High Low Medium Here we try and rid our landscape of weeds, in many cases at great economic cost. But there is little ecological evidence that this approach is cost-effective or necessary. Gorse one of the weed species that is under constant control has been found to provide good nursery cover for indigenous tree species from introduced browsers, climate and also landscape clearing. Other roadside weeds provide habitat for native invertebrates, yet we tend to cut and spray our roadside verges to keep things neat and tidy. Studying the ecological value of weed habitat for indigenous biodiversity will potentially provide an economic as well as conservation benefit. Richard Hill, (past leader of gorse biocontrol research, now ecological consultant), Private Bag 4704, Christchurch
90 Biosecurity Biosecurity; Pest control; Education High High High High New Zealand has an invaluable resource in its isolation from potential crop pests from overseas. Every year we have free of economically dangerous biota such as foot and mouth disease, Asian gypsy moth or fruit fly is worth millions of dollars to our economy, not simply through direct loss of crop potential, but also from loss of markets that would be subsequently closed to NZ goods. Increasingly globalised trade and more extreme weather events are increasing the biological threats to our export earnings, are our defences keeping pace? Gordon Hosking, Tikitere, RD 4, Rotorua
91 NZIF Forestry Policy. Forestry; Indigenous; BMP; Policy High Medium High High Excellent document with emphasis on ecosystem management.  But not that influential - just like the NSS for SLM. Why not? Colin O'Loughlin was part of both processes Colin O'Loughlin, PO Box 28 132, Christchurch
92 Spellerberg standards for management of biodiversity in plantations Forestry; BMP; Exotic High Medium Medium High A good research example - but little application as yet when compared to overseas - e.g. Fundy Forest (Guidelines to protect Forest biodiversity - excellent example of forest management on landscape scales (varying hierarchies from landscape to stand level management practices) - http://www.unb.ca/forestry/centers/cwru/opening.htm Ian Spellerberg, PO Box 84, Lincoln University
93 FSC Certification in NZ Forestry; BMP; Exotic; Monitoring High High High High FSC certification is being embraced by most of the forest growing sector in NZ as well as processors. Issues are market access more than market premium - Home Bond especially. Example of market mechanism. Criteria 6 requires landscape scale consideration of biodiversity (Forest management shall conserve biological diversity and its associated values, water resources, soils, and unique and fragile ecosystems and landscapes, and, by so doing, maintain the ecological functions and the integrity of the forest) egs. City Forests, Fletchers, soon Wenita. This will lead to better understanding of their forests (from ecological and social dimensions) and incorporation of wider landscape (social and ecological) concerns into their management. Peter Handford, Forme consulting, Wellington.
94 Developing species diversity in Forestry Forestry; BMP; Exotic High High Medium High The growing appreciation of other species is a development within the industry. In some areas more than 50 percent of seedlings planted are species other than radiata pine. Douglas fir, Eucalypt, Cypress.  Leads to reduced homogeneity - key to biodiversity. Other species are openly being discussed - certain furniture grade eucalypts, redwoods for the Californian market. Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin
95 Complex multi-species planted forests in NZ with indigenous reserve areas and variable harvest in space and time Forestry; Exotic; BMP High Medium High High Major examples include City Forests management of Flagstaff and Ross Creek - diverse species, age-class mosaic - very healthy. Whakarewarewa forest in Rotorua - diverse species and age-class mosaic - managed for social and economic objectives - owned (I think) by Rotorua City. Hanmer forest - was multi-species multi-use forest - Case study on how single objectives can change things? Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin
96 Effect of Corporatisation and Privatisation on forest structure Forestry; Exotic; Economics; BMP Medium Medium Medium Medium Mixed results. Large publicly listed simplified pattern - reduced rotation length, rationalised species. Movement from multiple use (of a sort) to single objective management. Loss of recreation areas with diverse species to encourage birds etc. Also responsible for variation in management approach - especially from the smaller, privately owned companies. Chris Perley, PO Box 7116, Dunedin
97 NZ Forest Accord Forestry; Exotic; Indigenous; BMP; Culture Medium Medium Medium High Already covered by Alan Reid as a case study. An agreement between the forest industry and environmental and recreational organisations which sets out agreed definitions of areas where it is appropriate to establish plantation forestry, and acknowledges that the existing area of natural indigenous forest in NZ should be maintained and enhanced - either by reservation or sustainable management of indigenous forest. Maori issues related (Ngati Porou). Alan Reid, MAF
98 Principles for Commercial Plantation Forest Management in New Zealand 1996 Forestry; Exotic; Indigenous; BMP; Culture Medium Medium Medium High A further agreement between the forest industry and conservation groups which expands on ecological, social and economic principles for plantation forest management in recognition of the process of inter-governmental process building on SFM - includes biodiversity principles. Alan Reid, MAF
99 Importance of fire-induced seral vegetation for threatened species: Skinks at lake Sutton Landscape; threatened species; Land use; Burning Medium Low High Medium A 20-ha bracken-covered site on farmland at Lake Station in the Upper Buller Valley has high biodiversity value because of an exceptional abundance of three species of skinks. Two species are habitat generalists and widespread (common skink Oligosoma nigriplantare polychroma and spotted skink O. lineoocellatum) but one has a nationally restricted distribution (speckled skink, O. infrapunctatum). Surrounding areas have been converted to improved pasture and pines, and there is pressure for the farmer to develop the skink site in this way too. Periodic burning and grazing has maintained the present vegetation and may have contributed to the present abundance of skinks (a survey in November 2000 showed that many skinks had survived a burnoff in September 2000). Research is urgently needed to determine what regime of burning and grazing, possibly supplemented by other management, is compatible with retaining the present skink populations. Murray Efford, Landcare Research, Private Bag, Dunedin.
100 Council Initiatives (mainly Regional) Landscape; Indigenous; Biogeography; Riparian; Culture; Capacity building; BMP High Medium High High There are many specific examples: Otago Riparian Management Guidelines & North Otago Sustainable Land Management group; Environment Canterbury encouragement of use of indigenous plants in hedgerows and shelterbelts (and other similar around NZ); Environmental awards; Christchurch CC waterside planting guide Environmental Newsletters; State of Environment baselines; Environmental farm plans, etc. Colin Meurk, Landcare Lincoln for Environment Canterbury initiatives
101 Restoration Planting Guidelines Landscape; Restoration; Capacity Building; Indigenous High Medium High High Restoration Planting Guidelines – QEII, as well as Christchurch and Lyttleton Basin Ecosystem Maps (Lucas Associates). Also DoC initiatives in this field. One restoration guideline is soon to be released by DoC Canterbury. The Ecological Restoration Network (ww.bush.org.nz) a national approach with regional focus – Planter Guide available at www.bush.org.nz/planterguide ) Colin Meurk, Landcare, Lincoln
103 Adaptive Management on the Web Landscape; Capacity building; BMP; Culture Medium Low High High Will Allen's (Landcare NZ) "nrm-changelinks.net - links for developing change in Natural Resource Management - an on-line resource guide for those seeking to improve the use of collaborative and learning-based approaches" established by the Massey University Natural Resource Management Programme http://nrm.massey.ac.nz/changelinks/ . Also an associated site (www.landcare.cri.nz ) from Landcare Research Will Allen, Landcare

Appendix f: Collation of recommendations made in this report

We recommend the following actions:

In general

  1. The general style of MAF's research portfolio be based on a principle of multi-disciplinary, integrated, systems-based, long-term research to safeguard agricultural biodiversity
  2. MAF takes an intermediate course between applied research to solve tightly defined problems that could hit on immediate gains for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes and more fundamental research to understand how ecological processes work in New Zealand's agricultural landscapes.
  3. MAF and Regional Councils recruit or train community facilitators to guide adaptive management as a powerful adjunct to scientific research programmes in supporting agricultural biodiversity.
  4. Urgently instigate a middle course between research and adaptive management investigating the blocks and gateways to effective adaptive management, to reverse environmental degradation within agricultural landscapes.
  5. Re-activation of the NSSC SLM strategy statement by MAF to provide a cost-effective and rapid start towards a more co-ordinated science planning process supporting New Zealand's agricultural biodiversity.
  6. In addition to the SLM strategy there is development and execution of a detailed research agenda that investigates the direct links between agricultural practice and landscape features and the ecology of key animals and plants living in agricultural landscapes.

Landscape recommendations

  1. Research and management is conducted over broad spatial and temporal scales to reflect the functions and processing of the integrated landscape system.
  2. That the quantitative and qualitative State of New Zealand's biodiversity in productive landscapes is realised.
  3. That the role of introduced species and mixed indigenous/introduced assemblage in providing for indigenous biodiversity as well as acting as pests and weeds is investigated
  4. That both the economic and social drivers in the productive landscape are appreciated in relation to the formation of policy and management of biodiversity.
  5. MAF form an understanding and delivery of long-term, adequately resourced capacity building, adaptive management processes which identify the value of traditional knowledge and maintain it.
  6. Development of a better understanding of agricultural land uses as agroecosystems and economic systems over the long term.

Forestry recommendations

  1. Development of an inventory methodology to assess the biodiversity within plantation and indigenous forests.
  2. Monitoring of forest biodiversity at the landscape level and appropriate temporal level using the inventory data collected in point 1
  3. Identification of 'umbrella' species and assemblages that can be used to indicate forest health within indigenous and plantation forests.
  4. Identification of the role(s) plantation forests play in the conservation of indigenous biodiversity and the management practices required to maintain or enhance these biodiversity values.
  5. Investigation of the role of island biogeographical relationships within forests: in maintaining or enhancing native biodiversity.
  6. Development of a monitoring and management systems that reflect New Zealand's uniqueness.
  7. Research aiming to define key biodiversity indicators in agricultural and forestry landscapes be given high priority.
  8. Research on public attitudes towards management of both indigenous and plantation forests for production and biodiversity.

Soil biota recommendations

  1. Commission a report to collate information available that allows standardised comparison of the attributes of insect communities and soil biota of various systems, and to interpret this information from the perspective of system management within landscapes.
  2. Commission a report to assess feasibility and logistics of a collaborative research programme directed at linking the attributes of insect and soil biodiversity to components at the landscape scale, and to provide a plan for a collaborative pilot scheme. This would be expected to integrate a range of researchers across institutional boundaries and to enable modular development of system comparisons, tool development and training mechanisms.
  3. Commission a report to evaluate where existing research programmes such as those involving biocontrol and biosecurity might provide benefits to, and benefit from, being integrated into a national biodiversity research programme directed at understanding the attributes of insect and soil biota communities of the system components in New Zealand landscapes

Pollinator recommendations

  1. MAF facilitates attempts to initiate overseas aid programmes that fund New Zealand bee taxonomists to assist other CBD parties to solve their taxonomic impediment to understanding and managing pollinators.
  2. MAF facilitates attempts to initiate overseas aid programmes that fund New Zealand crop pollination biologists to assist other CBD parties to solve their pollination problems.
  3. Development of native bee monitoring and sampling protocols:
  4. Develop research and protocols for the prediction of indirect impact of Varroa on long-term nutrification and productivity of pastoral grass swords and soils.
  5. Research on the impacts of honey bees on native bees
  6. Monitoring of feral bees, native bees and other insect pollinators across the Varroa invasion front:
  7. Determination of whether pollination affects population dynamics of key native and introduced plants in agricultural landscapes.
  8. 3MAF meet their CBD commitments by responding to some of the potential actions regarding pollinators that are detailed in Table 2.

Case study recommendations

  1. A high proportion of case studies presented by New Zealand should be comprehensive and integrative in scope.
  2. There be no attempt to rank or balance the number of case studies between the four focal areas.
  3. MAF should prepare at least one New Zealand review in each of the four focal areas before any other smaller reviews are added.
  4. That new case studies for the CBD website should complement rather than overlap with existing case studies.
  5. As many case studies are mounted as resources allow and that topics are selected approximately in the rank order given in Appendix E. These case studies should include:
  1. the social dimension of ecosystem management
  2. a wide range of topics to illustrate the divergent spatial and ecological process scales determined by the somewhat arbitrary choice of the four focal areas reviewed
  3. well defined science understanding as crucial to the cases success
  4. examples of application and research acting together
  5. ongoing learning as a planned part of the process
  6. links to research gaps identified for other agendas in this contract research brief
  7. examples of the way threatened species are being managed in production landscapes
  8. examples from all ends of the continuum between intensive cropping and horticulture to pastoralism
  9. show the parallel issues in Australia and the Pacific
  10. experience of local experts

Research gaps recommendations

  1. MAF initiates a considerable step-up in the volume of research and adaptive management initiatives dedicated primarily to safeguarding biodiversity in agricultural landscapes
  2. MAF use DoC's threatened species ranking system373 to prioritise research aiming to safeguard threatened species persisting in predominantly agricultural landscapes.
  3. There should be no attempt to rank or balance the number of research projects between focal areas.
  4. As many research and/or adaptive management projects be mounted as resources allow and that topics are initially selected approximately according to the importance rankings given in Table 3.
  5. A more comprehensive and cohesive research and adaptive management programme should be planned once approximate budget allocations are known. This portfolio should incorporate many of the strands reviewed in this report i.e.:
  1. be multidisciplinary, using the principles of the Ecosystem Approach
  2. include long-term study
  3. focus on the direct biodiversity ecological linkages to land use issues and categories recognised by land use managers
  4. generally be systems-based and multi-species in approach
  5. target abundant and widespread species in agricultural landscapes because these are ecologically important
  6. consider potential/eventual impact as equally important to current ecological importance
  7. target support to endemic species as more important than exotic ones, but still recognising the role of valuable exotic species
  8. evaluate ecological effects of homogenisation and intensification of land use
  9. assign higher priority to soil biota and landscape issues than to forestry and pollinator concerns
  10. study generic processes in both forestry and agricultural landscapes so that each habitat regime gains some specific closely targeted information while contributing more thematic understandings to the other

In house recommendations

  1. We recommend that representatives from MAF, MfE, DoC, Te Puni Kokiri, Regional Councils, Parliamentary Commission for the Environment, the Landcare movement and conservation NGOs meet to explore ways to help each other re-integrate biodiversity policy, management and research in New Zealand's agricultural landscapes. MAF should take a key facilitating role in this process as it has a central co-ordinating role with the predominant land users - the agriculturalists and foresters.
  2. MAF promotes and actively implements the principles and priorities set out in the SLM statement both within MAF in all its programmes but also amongst other agencies with whom it interacts.
  3. A National Science Strategy for Biodiversity be formulated, either as an extension of the current SLM statement or separate from it.
  4. MAF works with MfE, DOC, the Ministry for Science and Technology (MoRST), and the Foundation for Research Science & technology (FRST) to re-integrate research strategic planning.
  5. The collaboration and co-funding between MAF and DoC on some threatened species work in agricultural landscapes to speed re-integration.
  6. MAF and MfE embrace the environmental philosophies integral to the CBD-endorsed ecosystem approach by working in close partnership in developing a strong National Policy Statement MAF should also take an active advocacy role for the value of introduced species and land use stewards to contribute to national biodiversity.
  7. MAF conducts a thorough in-house review to identify ways to reduce dichotomies between use and conservation, native and introduced biota etc. in the way it is organised and operates.
  8. MAF considers building an in-house ecological science capacity to spearhead its own biodiversity research programme and hasten integration of policy, management and research for conservation through sustainable use.
  9. MAF increases its commitment to social research to underpin application of the Ecosystem Management approach.
  10. MAF takes an active advocacy role for the value of introduced species and land uses as positive contributors to national biodiversity.
  11. MAF acknowledge and provide support for the Landcare Trust and regional councils as the best placed to provide the long-term learning relationships with people on the land essential for adaptive management under ecosystem management.

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