Footnotes
1 UNEP/CBD/COP/3/14, page 2.
2 COP/3/14, page 9.
3 For example, New Zealand has 76 times less tax take to spend per threatened species in its care than does the USA (Towns & Williams 1993).
4 Conservation management is often called a "crisis discipline" (Soule 1987).
5 Much of New Zealand's threatened biota persist in small fragmented populations, have low reproductive rates and few adaptations to protect themselves from new disturbance regimes and introduced predators and competitors. Even if a huge amount of care could be lavished on them, the rate of recovery will often be very slow and further extinctions are likely.
6 Dr Billy Hamilton is a population ecologist and behaviourist with particular experience in native fish. Recently he has been involved in evaluation for Forest Stewardship Certifications and preparation of conservation management plans for managed forests. John Hutcheson has 30 years experience working on exotic and indigenous forest health dynamics and the development of a pragmatic approach to insect community characterisation. He has worked in a wider variety of human modified landscapes since leaving the Forest Research Institute in 1997. Dr Henrik Moller has over 23 years of experience researching introduced pests in forests and pastoral landscapes for TB mitigation and conservation of indigenous biota. Chris Perley has degrees in Agricultural Science and Forestry Science, 18 years experience in operational management and policy analysis relating to forestry, farm forestry and the environment. He is actively involved in public debates of national conservation philosophy.
7 'Clearing house mechanism' refers to the CBD communications and capacity building programme. In this instance the Case Study would probably appear on the CBD website.
8 Odum (1971).
9 Bergandi (2000).
10 (Bergandi 2000).
11 Bergandi (2000).
12 See Wu and Loucks (1995) for a more detailed account of this paradigm shift in ecology. See Grumbine (1994) for a detailed analysis of the themes that predominate in Ecosystem Management.
13 Simberloff (1998).
14 Ibid.
15 http://www.biodiv.org/cross-cutting/ecosystem/principles.asp
16 See http://www.biodiv.org/cross-cutting/ecosystem/default.asp (CBD Ecosystem 2001).
17 The need for better integration between research, policy and management is emphasised by Brockerhoff et al. (2001) and Maini (1998).
18 Herbohn et al. (2000).
19 See their website at www.landcare.org.nz for a full description of their philosophy and approach.
20 Meurk & Swaffield (2000), Forman & Godron (1986).
21 Budiansky (1995), Drury (1998).
22 Klimaszewski and Watt (1997). These figures for endemism are based on historical collections, and given the widespread anthropogenic changes in the NZ landscape over the last 40 years it is possible that they are now overestimates. There is a need for reassessment based on current land management systems.
23 Measured both in terms of species (Watson et al. 1995) and intra-specific variation (Berry 1982).
24 Fenchel (1993), Findley and Clarke (1999).
25 Green (1993).
26 Williams (2001).
27 Meurk & Swaffield (2000).
28 e.g. Martin (1983).
29 Towns & Williams (1993).
30 Department of Conservation Biodiversity Research Strategy (1997).
31 Clout and Saunders (1995).
32 King (1983), Elliott (1996), O'Donnell and Dilks (1994), King & Moller (1997).
33 J. R. Beggs (pers. comm.).
34 Compared to other countries.
35 Williams (1973) and Gibb & Flux (1973) highlight the contrast between birds and mammals in this regard. Introduced mammals have gone everywhere in New Zealand including the forest systems, perhaps because of the lack of competitors. Very few introduced birds have penetrated forests (chaffinches are a notable exception), perhaps because of the suite of specialised extant indigenous species there.
36 Moller et al. (1991) showed that over 90% of the honeydew resource was unused until wasps appeared. Common wasps were able to displace the earlier invader, the German wasp because they were able to win a competitive race by exploiting the resource much faster than could common wasps (Harris et al. 1996). This in turn has led to greater competition between native birds and wasps, which remove over 99 percent of the honeydew standing crop for 3 months of the year. The relentless threat and need for biosecurity is illustrated by Vespula pensylvanica. It is even more of a threat because it out-competes common wasp, and if established will turn the competitive pressure on endemic biota all the more.
37 Moller et al. (1993), Moller (1996).
38 The latter is a result of physiological changes consequent on more extreme abiotic conditions. There is now general international acknowledgement of the applicability of Manion's (1981) three-factor model of plant health decline within indigenous systems (Mueller-Dombois 1987). The model includes predisposing, inciting and contributing factors and has been documented in New Zealand with the widespread decline of beech forests following the 1972-73 spring droughts (Hosking and Hutcheson 1986, 1988, Hosking 1993). Essentially older trees and those on sites with low moisture retention capability (predisposing factors) were physiologically shocked by drought over the leaf-flushing period (inciting factor), and their nutritional potential to insects and pathogens (contributing factors) was increased. The sequence is also seen in interactions at the individual plant level during normal successional progress (e.g. Hutcheson 1991) where insects are seen to supply mechanisms for ecosystem adaptability. A wide range of examples of changing nutritional potential within biotic systems in association with changing environmental factors is discussed by White (1993). The same general model is broad enough to be applied (with varied emphasis) to situations involving new distributions of organisms and even to situations where combination of formally geographically isolated microbial strains results in more virulent pathogenic interactions, e.g. chestnut blight.
39 Jackson and Stucki (1986). The subsequent conceptual, research and application progress made by the New Zealand team in this area has received considerable world recognition (Jackson et al. 1996).
40 Moller (1996).
41 Samways (1988).
42 Moller (1989).
43 Eyles (1966).
44 Dumbleton (1945).
45 Cameron and Wigley (1989).
46 Merton (1982). Thomas (1963) also noted no grass grub parasitism by P. cana in extensive pastoral areas (Cameron and Wigley 1989), and Kelsey and Hoy (1950) considered that native parasitoid species were unlikely to prevent damaging population increases of grass grub in extensive pasture.
47 Davidson and Davidson (1992) provide an equivalent example of the way total removal of the indigenous system from the production landscape is counterproductive to Australian pest control. The female wasp biocontrol agent of Australian grass grub is flightless and requires feeding and fertilisation after every few eggs laid. Males regurgitate nectar for the female during copulation, but their range is limited to within about 200m of indigenous nectar sources. Where farmland has been totally cleared, one of the weapons in the potential arsenal against the grass grub is not available.
48 Cattle, sheep, horses, goats, thar, chamois, deer, wallabies and possums.
49 Hosking and Hutcheson (1992, 1993).
50 B. Patrick (pers. comm.) and Dugdale and Hutcheson (1997), Hutcheson and Kimberley (1999). Malaise trapping of beetles has also indicated that areas of forest systems undergoing disturbance show an increased richness and abundance of insects (Hutcheson 1996, Hutcheson 1999, Hutcheson and Jones 1999, Brookes et al. 2001).
51 Ibid.
52 McGlone (2001).
53 Malloy (1988), Given (1995), Moller (1996, 1998), Hartley (1998), Norton (1998), Perley (1998), Given & Spellerberg (2000), Meurk & Swaffield (2000), Craig et al. (2000), Norton & Miller (2000), Park (2000), McGlone (2001).
54 e.g. Kuschel (1990).
55 Hutcheson and Kimberley (1999), Hutcheson and Jones (1999), Hutcheson (unpublished data).
56 Clout & Gaze (1984a).
57 e.g. Zackrisson (1999), Wardle et al. (2001).
58 At least until the first prunings of a pine crop managed for high quality clearwood become available.
59 compared to occasionally visiting environments a far off National Park, or confronting nature mainly from Natural History television.
60 This "tragedy of the commons" argument was first expounded by Hardin (1968).
61 Hutcheson (1990), Hutcheson (1996), Hutcheson et al. (1999).
62 Patterson (2000).
63 Barnhill (1999).
64 Pipkin (1996) expands on the arguments for why an integrative approach, which includes people and ecological concerns, is necessary as a foundation for public policy.
65 Recommendations are italicised at first mention and collated in appendix F.
66 Sinclair (1991), McNab (1993), Ebenhardt (1988), Walters & Holling (1990).
67 Romsburg (1981), Nudds & Morrison (1991).
68 Walters & Holling (1990), Ludwig (1993).
69 Lancia et al. (1996), Walters (1997), Moller & Raffaelli (1998), Palma (1998), Raffaeli & Moller (2000).
70 Dovers & Mobbs (1997), Allen (2000a,b).
71 Walters & Holling (1990).
72 Allen (2000), Allen et al. (2000).
73 See http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/ for a full record of the statement. The insertion of the level 'archives' in this URL is a poignant reminder that this review has been shelved rather than pro-actively used to guide sustainable land management since its completion in 1997.
74 See http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/ for a statement of the SLM guiding principles which include integration, incorporation of users and indigenous people's perspectives, equity, consultation and partnership.
75 See http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/ and Appendix M.
76 e.g. Prendergast et al. (1993).
77 refer Section 2, and Schama (1995).
78 Pickett and Cadenasso (1995).
79 Ibid.
80 Gow (1997).
81 Malloy (1988).
82 Taylor & Smith (1997).
83 Taylor & Smith (1997), Norton & Miller (2000).
84 Norton (1999).
85 Recher (1997), Norton (1998), Given & Spellerberg (2000), Meurk & Swaffield (2000), Norton (2000).
86 The focus on both landscape systems and the socio-economic issues is also an emphasis in the important work of Meurk & Swaffield (2000), Norton (2000) and Halloy (1995).
87 Gow (1997) http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/
88 Allen & Platt (1990), Robertson & Hackwell (1995), Heads (1997), Steadman (1997), Haase (1999), Swenson (2000), Trewick (2000), Waters et al. (2000), Cracraft (2001), Smith (2001).
89 Scarsbrook & Townsend (1993), Townsend et al. (1997).
90 Quinn & Cooper (1997), Quinn et al. (2000).
91 Blaschke et al. (1992).
92 Price (1993), Olson & Holland (1995), Spellerberg (1998).
93 Holland (1988), Lord & Norton (1990), Blashke et al. (1992), Park (1995), Nikora et al. (1999), Holland (2000), Meurk & Swaffield (2000), Norton & Miller (2000), Park (2000).
94 Mazerolle and Villard (1999).
95 Stark (1990).
96 K. Stark, pers. comm..
97 Sherley & Hayes (1993).
98 The intermediate disturbance hypothesis is one idea that suggests an optimal level of disturbance for particular species, though other commentators see any attempt at an optimum disturbance as a hark back to Clementsian succession and equilibrium ecology.
99 Young and Mitchell (1994).
100 See especially their figures 3 and 4 comparing the current "dysfunctional" agricultural landscape with a functional landscape with a greater variety of pattern and process evident within it.
101 Reay and Norton (1999).
102 Many factors affect these processes (microsite conditions, soil forming factors, topoclimate).
103 Holland (2000).
104 Halloy (1995).
105 Wilson (1994), Awimbo et al. (1996), Jowett et al. (1996), Townsend et al. (1997), Nikora (1999), Rowe et al. (1999), Scarsbrook (1999), Holland (2000), Harris (2000).
106 Arnold (1983), Gustafson and Parker (1994), Deffontaines et al. (1995), Burel (1996), Knight and Morris (1996), Duelli (1997), Fry and Sarlovherlin (1997), Naiman and Decamps (1997), Forman and Alexander (1998), Haydon and Pianka (1999).
107 Hall et al. (1999). The continuing intensification of a more extensive agricultural land (sheep and beef) to dairying is a growing concern in areas of the South Island, where the increased inputs associated with a highly utilitarian value system is having effects on water and soil values in particular.
108 Gray & Craig (1992) show how several options for management are often not concluded because of dominating New Zealand conservation paradigms and neo-Darwinian assumptions.
109 Craig et al. (2000).
110 MacMillan (1973), Ogle (1989), Allen et al. (1995), Ogden et al. (1997), Gibbs (1998), Norton (1989), Hutcheson (1999).
111 Williams and Stewart (1998).
112 Wallis (2001).
113 Gow (1997).
114 Taiepa et al. (1997), Allen (1999), Allen et al. (2001).
115 Parminter (1994).
116 Often on free draining slopes with moderately deep soils and generally lower fertility.
117 Often from steeper areas in gullies.
118 Farm forestry has a particular role to play within integrated landscape. The benefits can be social (aesthetics etc), economic (due to complementary cashflow from complementary land to pasture, as well as providing shelter, contingency to allow different farming methods because of shelter, shade, or through direct returns) and environmental (attracting insects, birds; providing connectivity and important patches, reducing run-off into water; and reducing soil erosion). Most importantly, the motivation for farm forestry remains strong, yet no strategy exists to encourage it within farm communities.
119 Blaschke et al. (1992) - one of the few attempts to view farmland as a system, though on this occasion the focus was soil conservation rather than biodiversity.
120 Siegrist et al. (1998), Vanmansvelt et al. (1998), Kuiper (2000), O'Riordan and Cobb (2001).
121 An example is MfE's Draft publication: Managing Waterways on Farms: A guide to sustainable water and riparian management in rural New Zealand.
122 Macdonald and Johnson (2000).
123 Callicott and Freyfogle (1999).
124 That "personnel development" involves people acting within research, policy and operational areas as a learning collective.
125 Pimentel et al. (1992).
126 Allen et al. (1995).
127 Farrell et al. (2000).
128 See for instance the Fundy Model Forest for the biodiversity guidelines as an example of guidelines applied to maintain and enhance biodiversity and ecosystem function - http://www.unb.ca/forestry/centers/cwru/opening.htm - Woodley and Forbes (1997). These best management practices (BMPs) are aimed at maintaining or increasing the functional and structural diversity of a forest set within a landscape context. Environmental management systems, of which BMPs are an essential part, are one means of ensuring that operational management includes wider considerations of habitat.
129 Whitmore and Sayer (1992).
130 MacArthur and Wilson (1967).
131 Schulze et al. (1996).
132 Weatherhead (1986); Kareiva and Anderson (1989); Tilman (1989).
133 May (1994); Marzluff et al. (2000).
134 Colbourne and Kleinpaste, (1983), Potter, (1990), Taborsky, (1988, 1995) .
135 e.g. Quinn, et al. (1997); Davies-Colley and Quinn, (1998); Baillie, et al. (1999).
136 Cada, et al. (1987).
137 O'Loughlin (1995).
138 Batzer et al. (2000).
139 Dranzoa (1998).
140 Thiollay (1992).
141 Dranzoa (1998).
142 Mohua or yellowhead (Mohua ochrocephala), a rare endemic bird species, inhabit unmodified forest, especially red or silver beech.
143 Manolis et al. (2000), Yahner (2000).
144 Hansen and Urban (1992), Forsman et al. (1996); Thompson et al. (2000).
145 e.g. Wiser (2000).
146 Gibb (1961), Kikkawa, (1966), Heinekamp and Ramsay, (1973), Bull (1981), Clout and Gaze, (1984), Taborsky, (1988, 1995), Duncan et al. (1999).
147 Marzluff et al. (2000).
148 See Ryan (1991) as well as Hamilton (2001) and Hamilton and Moller (2000) for reviews of these effects.
149 Paller et al. (2000).
150 Schleiger (2000).
151 Boubée et al. (1997), McDowall (1995, 2000).
152 McDowall (1995), McDowall and Taylor (2000).
153 Law et al. (1999), Law and Dickman (1998).
154 Lumsden et al. (1995, 1995), Law et al. (1999).
155 Fahrig and Merriam (1994).
156 O'Donnell et al. (1999).
157 Daniel (1981, 1990), Daniel and Williams (1983, 1984).
158 Reay and Norton (1999).
159 See Hamilton and Moller (2000).
160 Cadenasso and Pickett (1999).
161 Cadenasso and Pickett (1999); also see Marzluff et al. (2000) for explanation.
162 Scarsbrook and Halliday (1998), Davis-Colley et al. (2000).
163 Andrén (1994).
164 Harrison (1992).
165 Lindenmayer and Nix (1993), Lindenmayer (2000).
166 Lindenmayer (2000).
167 McNeely (1994), Lindenmayer and Franklin (1997).
168 Christian et al. (1997).
169 Yahner (1982, 1983), Kelly et al. (1990).
170 e.g. see Department of Conservation's species management plans.
171 Simberloff (1998), Simberloff (1999), Maddock and Du Plessis (1999).
172 Parrotta (2000).
173 Lamb et al. (1997), Parrotta (2000).
174 Reay and Norton (1999).
175 Yates and Hobbs (1997).
176 Allen (1997).
177 Yates and Hobbs (1997).
178 Reay and Norton (1999).
179 Anderson (1993).
180 Saunders et al. (1993), Hobbs and Norton (1996).
181 Reay and Norton (1999).
182 Clout and Hay (1989), Lee et al. (1991), Burrows (1994).
183 Norton (1991).
184 Reay and Norton (1999).
185 Most convincing in this regard is Flux's (1989) demonstration that island biogeography theory can predict almost exactly how many species went extinct on New Zealand's four main islands between 1840 and 1975 simply by measuring the reduction in forest cover.
186 Harriman and Morrison (1982), Ormerod (1989, 1993).
187 Harriman and Morrison (1982).
188 Friberg (1997).
189 Molloy et al. (1963), McGlone (1988).
190 Pullar and McLeod (1992).
191 MAF (1998), Newsome (1987), Evans (1995).
192 Benecke (2000).
193 MAF (2000), McKenzie (1987), Quinn et al. (1997).
194 IFU also audit the records of sawmills - all of which have to be certified in order to buy and sell indigenous timber sourced from private land.
195 Benecke (2000).
196 Brockerhoff et al. (2001).
197 Andersson et al. (2000).
198 Soule (1987) coined the term "extinction vortex" to emphasise the combined effects of several ecological threats that are causing a global extinction crisis. New Zealand has an extremely high rate of extinction and endangerment for its size, principally because its endemic island fauna evolved in the absence of browsing and predatory mammals and snakes. Our species have therefore not coped well with the onslaught of invasive predators and competitors brought to New Zealand in this age of travel.
199 Clout and Gaze (1984), Allen et al. (1995), Ogden et al. (1997).
200 Clout and Gaze (1984).
201 see Timberlands' Overview Plan for the sustainable management of beech forests (1999); and Moller (1999), Resource Consent Hearing submission).
202 Silverster and McGowan (eds.) "Native trees for the future"; Proceedings of a forum held at the University of Waikato (1999).
203 Stewart, Benecke and Hickey (eds): Proceeding of a symposium held at Southern Connection Congress 3 (2000).
204 Evans (2000).
205 Allen and Norton (2000).
206 Stewart et al. (2000).
207 Stuart (1962).
208 Allibone and Townsend (1997), McDowall (1993).
209 McDowall (1993).
210 see forestry codes of practice: Visser and Smith (1993).
211 McDowall et al. (1996).
212 Suren (1993, 1996).
213 Jowett and Richardson (1996); Hicks (1997); Rowe et al. (1999).
214 Jowett et al. (1998), Chadderton and Allibone (2000).
215 Haberstock et al. (2000).
216 O'Loughlin (1994).
217 Boothroyd and Langer (1999).
218 Collier et al. (1995).
219 See Collier (1995), Hicks and McCaughan (1997), Davies-Colley and Quinn (1998), Haberstock et al. (2000), Paller et al. (2000), Hamilton (2000), Hamilton and Moller (2000) for research and reviews.
220 Haberstock et al. (2000), Davies and Nelson (1994).
221 Borg et al. (1988), Newbold et al. (1980), Davies and Nelson (1994).
222 Stream macro-invertebrate biodiversity can be affected by buffer widths <30m (see Noel et al. (1986), Newbold et al. (1980). Buffer widths less than 10 m can help reduce the effects of stream bank destabilisation but have little effect on macro-invertebrate densities (Culp and Davies 1983).
223 Cameron and Henderson (1979), Clinnick (1985).
224 Cameron and Henderson (1979), Clinnick (1985).
225 Spellerberg and Sawyer (1993).
226 Woodley and Forbes (1997). A PDF file of the biodiversity guidelines is available at http://www.unb.ca/forestry/centers/cwru/opening.htm. The Fundy Model Forest homepage is at http://www.fundymodelforest.net/
227 Spellerberg and Sawyer (1993).
228 e.g. Visser and Smith (1993).
229 e.g. Timberlands West Coast (1998, 2000).
230 see Timberlands West Coast (1998).
231 Barbier et al. (1994), Forsyth et al. (1999).
232 The US firm Home Depot has announced that within two years it will require all wood products to be sourced from independently certified forests and through a certified chain of custody from the forest to their stores.
233 Fuller et al. (1998).
234 Gioia et al. (2000).
235 Khan et al. (1997).
236 Szaro & Balda (1982), Landres et al. (1988), USDA Strategic Plan, Simberloff (1998,1999).
237 U.S. Laws, National Forest Management Act (1976), Bull et al. (1986), Morrison et al. (1986).
238 The term focal includes several existing categories of species used to assess ecological integrity including; indicator species, keystone species, ecological engineers, umbrella species, link species and species of special concern (US Forest Service Manual).
239 Campbell et al. (1996).
240 See Buckingham (1999).
241 Lindenmayer et al. (2000).
242 Principle 6 of FSC (Environmental Impact) includes the following statement, which makes reference to landscape scales: Forest management shall conserve biological diversity and its associated values, water resources, soils, and unique and fragile ecosystems and landscapes, and, by so doing, maintain the ecological functions and the integrity of the forest.
- Assessment of environmental impacts shall be completed -- appropriate to the scale, intensity of forest management and the uniqueness of the affected resources -- and adequately integrated into management systems. Assessments shall include landscape level considerations as well as the impacts of on-site processing facilities. Environmental impacts shall be assessed prior to commencement of site-disturbing operations.
- Safeguards shall exist which protect rare, threatened and endangered species and their habitats (e.g., nesting and feeding areas). Conservation zones and protection areas shall be established, appropriate to the scale and intensity of forest management and the uniqueness of the affected resources. Inappropriate hunting, fishing, trapping and collecting shall be controlled.
- Ecological functions and values shall be maintained intact, enhanced, or restored, including:
- Forest regeneration and succession.
- Genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.
- Natural cycles that affect the productivity of the forest ecosystem.
- Representative samples of existing ecosystems within the landscape shall be protected in their natural state and recorded on maps, appropriate to the scale and intensity of operations and the uniqueness of the affected resources.
- Written guidelines shall be prepared and implemented to: control erosion; minimize forest damage during harvesting, road construction, and all other mechanical disturbances; and protect water resources.
243 For Montreal Process Criteria and Indicators see http://www.mpci.org/
244 See section 7.2. for a discussion of the problems of defining "health" at the level of ecosystems. Also see Kolb et al. (1994), Jenkins (1997), O'Laughlin et al. (1994), and Costanza et al. (1992).
245 Hutcheson and Kimberley (1999), Hutcheson and Jones (1999), Hutcheson et al. (1999).
246 As just one example, the work of Brooks et al. (2000) which examines some invertebrate effects of selection harvesting in Nothofagus.
247 see for example Copely (2000).
248 Theng et al. (1989).
249 Doran and Safley (1997).
250 see for example Hedges (1996).
251 Hosking and Hutcheson (1986, 1988).
252 Doube and Schmidt (1997).
253 Pankhurst et al. (1997).
254 Pankhurst et al. (1997).
255 Boag and Yeates (1998).
256 Read (1998).
257 Nilson et al. (1999), Gadgil (1975).
258 Simard et al. (1997).
259 New Zealand mountain beech for instance.
260 This was demonstrated recently by Terwilliger and Pastor (1999) in Canada.
261 This is discussed by Haselwandter and Bowen (1996) with special reference to tree species used in agroforestry / sylvopastoral systems.
262 Nylund et al. (1995).
263 Read (1995).
264 Hamel (1996).
265 Hamel (1996).
266 For example, see Yeates (1997), Martin (1983).
267 Prestidge et al. (1982).
268 Bourner et al. (1996).
269 Cooper (1976), P. D. Gadgil pers comm. (2001).
270 Gadgil and Gadgil (1975).
271 Gow (1997).
272 Springett & Gray (1992).
273 Duncan (1994).
274 Yeates et al. (1997).
275 H. Moller, unpubl. data.
276 For example, Hutcheson (1990), Samways (1984), Tonhaska (1994).
277 Wardle (1999).
278 Hurlbert (1984), Hurlbert and White (1993).
279 Wiegart (1988).
280 Hurlbert (1984).
281 Yeates (1993), Bongers et al. (1995), Hutcheson and Kimberley (1999).
282 Millar and Roper-Lyndsay (2001).
284 Jackson et al. (1996).
285 Glare (1992).
286 Ibid.
287 Jackson (1989).
288 O'Callaghan and Jackson (1993).
289 O'Callaghan et al. (1992).
290 Jackson et al. (1996).
291 For example Ratcliffe (1995).
292 Rose et al. (1999).
293 Glare et al. (1997), Walsh et al. (1999).
294 Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice.
295 See Kevan (1998)'s case study at www:biodiv.org/doc/case-studies/cs-agr-plinth2.htm
296 United States Government (1998), Cane & Topendino (2001).
297 Including "pollen bees" (known simply as "Native bees" in New Zealand), other insects and vertebrates.
298 Cane (2001), Marlin & La Berge (2001)
299 See UNEP/CBD/COP/5/INF/10 pages 18 -22 for details.
300 Godley (1979), Webb & Kelly (1993), Huryn (1995), Webb et al. (1999).
301 Norton (1984).
302 A recent review showed that honey bees collect pollen or nectar from 224 native plant taxa from 67 families in New Zealand (Huryn 1995).
303 Godley (1997), Lloyd (1985).
304 Ecroyd (1995, 1996), Ladley & Kelly (1996).
305 Webb (1994).
306 Kearns et al. (1998), Traveset (1999).
307 Baker et al. (1998).
308 Ecroyd (1993, 1994), McCartney (1994), Ecroyd et al. 1995, Arkins (1996), Arkins et al. (1999).
309 Godley (1979), Heath (1982), Clout & Hay (1989), Craig (1989), Castro & Robertson (1997), Robertson et al. (1999).
310 Whitaker (1987).
311 Craig et al. (2000).
312 Kelly & Sullivan (1997), Kelly et al. (2001).
313 See Obrien & Calder (1993), McKone et al. (1997), Scmidt-Adam et al. (1999, 2000) for examples of self-compatability in New Zealand indigenous plants. It may reflect an adaptation to naturally lower pollinator abundance (Webb & Pearson 1993).
314 Lord (1991).
315 Ecroyd (1995, 1996).
316 Schmidt-Adam et al. (2000).
317 eg, Shaw & Burns (1997).
318 E.g. Donovan & Read (1980), Donovan (1990), Austin et al. (1996), Mclaren et al. (1996).
319 E.g. Fisher & Pomeroy (1989), Macfarlane (1992).
320 E.g. wasps pollinating banyan figs (Gardner & Early 1996).
321 E.g. Donovan (1983, 1988, 1995, 2000).
322 E.g. Donovan (1990) calls for the introduction of more specialised pollinators like Osmia cornifrons, a tube-nesting mason bee.
323 Donovan (1990), Westerkamp & Gottsberger (2000).
324 28 percent of the New Zealand pollination literature captured by Moller et al. (2001) concerned kiwifruit.
325 An extensive though predominantly informal literature exists to support this case study and debates about its efficacy and appropriateness (e.g.s. Anon 1988, 1989, 1991; Ryan & Rhoades 1988; Stevenson 1990). The case study could explore whether technology can partly compensate for declines in pollinating animals.
326 Mark Goodwin pers. comm..
327 E.g. Macfarlane& Griffin (1985),Brown et al. (1992), Kerr (1992), Macfarlane (1992), McLaren et al. (1996), Richardson & Anderson (1996), Austin et al. (1998), Stanley et al. (2000).
328 B. J. Donovan research project (2001) in the database and pers. comm..
329 B.J, Donovan, pers. comm..
330 About 3,000 species from six families are thought to exist in Australia (Michener 1970).
331 the best review of native bee systematics is given by Donovan (1980).
332 Notes on natural enemies of native bees are all supplied by B.J. Donovan, pers. comm..
333 Moller & Huryn (1996).
334 Moller et al. (1997).
335 Huryn (1997).
336 Huryn & Moller (1995).
337 Over 50 research articles on wasps are included in the database used to generate this synthesis (Moller et al. 2001).
338 Clapperton et al. (1989), Moller et al. (1989).
339 Beggs et al. (1998), Beggs & Rees (1999).
340 Huryn (1995).
341 Myers (1993).
342 Kevan (1999).
343 Marlin and La Berge (2001), Roubik (2001), Williams (2001).
344 Connell (1987), Sih (1987), Yodzis (1988), Moller & Raffaelli (1997), Raffaelli & Moller (2000).
345 often Diptera (Kearns 2001).
346 Eg. Goodwin & Tenhouten (1991).
347 http://www.biodiv.org/areas/agro/case-studies.asp
348 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/case-studies/cs-agr-outline.htm
349 http://www.biodiv.org/areas/forest/case-studies.asp
350 U.S. Government Submission to the Secretariat on Pollinators at http://www.biodiv.org/areas/agro/case-studies.asp#POLL
351 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/case-studies/cs-agr-mycorrhizal.pdf
352 http://www.biodiv.org/doc/case-studies/cs-agr-great-sandhills.htm
353 see "The Risks, Costs and Benefits of using brodifacoum to eradicate rats from Kapiti Island" at http://www.biodiv.org/cross-cutting/alien/case-studies.asp
354 see http://www.biodiv.org/cross-cutting/alien/case-studies.asp
355 A. Reid, subm. October 2000 but not yet posted on website.
356 potentially the 'keystone' or 'critical' species (Paine 1994).
357 For example, gorse rarely grows above about 1000m in the South Island, whereas broom can go much higher into the tussock lands. See Hill and Sandrey (1986) and Richardson and Hill 1998 for issues of lags in spread of gorse.
358 Paynter et al. (1996).
359 Soule (1987).
360 Molloy et al. (1992).
361 This is a continuation of a dominant philosophy in public sector review, which began in 1984 and some commentators suggest has produced a centralised and authoritarian perspective do the detriment of social capital and bottom up approaches, as advocated by the CBD (Wallis & Dollery, 2001).
362 Meurk & Swaffield (2000).
363 G Hosking, pers. comm..
364 Gow, (1997). See Appendix D for the SLM priorities statement.
365 Given (1995).
366 Leopold's A Sand County Almanac (1949) is arguably the classic text articulating an ethic toward the environment by farmers, foresters, fishers, hunters and whole communities. It embraced culture and nature as one, with people living from what the land provided while honouring obligations toward the environment (also the underlying message of our Resource Management Act).
367 Wes Jackson is an agro-ecologist, founder of the Land Institute studying Prairie ecology and sustainable farming methods, and author of Becoming Native to this Place (1994) and Altars of Unhewn Stone (1987).
368 Wendell Berry is the author of a number of influential collections of essays on the association between people and the environment in which they live, including A Continuous Harmony: Essays Cultural and Agricultural (1972), The Unsettling of America (1977), and The Gift of Good Land (1981).
369 Freyfogle is the author of Bounded People: Boundless Land (1998) examining human rights and obligations in relation to land where no boundaries apply within the landscape.
All of these authors strongly articulate a concern for both people (especially rural communities) and the environment in which they live, with a keen interest in seeing both sustained.
370 This can often involve simply writing or presenting a paper, sometimes in an overseas conference.
371 Grumbine (1994).
372 Craig et al. (2000).
373 Molloy et al. (1992).
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