Benefits of Planted Forests: Social, Ecological and Economic
By Bill Dyck
For delivery at: UNFF Intersessional Experts Meeting on the Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable Forest Management, 24-30 March 2003, Wellington, New Zealand
Abstract
Planting forests provides a multitude of benefits that can be categorized as economic, ecological, and social. Planted forests conserve natural forests by reducing deforestation, improve degraded land, sequester carbon dioxide and therefore combat climate change, and improve local livelihoods providing employment, revenue and bolstering national economies. Currently there are approximately 200 million ha of plantation forest worldwide and in the order of 4.5 million ha of new plantations are established each year. Inevitably, and likely well within the next half century, all wood and fibre products will be derived from managed, planted forests and natural forests will be conserved for other values.
While defining a planted forest is not straightforward, it is also not critical in order to identify the benefits, because the benefits of planted forests are basically the same as those that can be derived from natural forests. To a large extent it’s a question of management. Forest management simply focused on low cost wood production will invariably produce lower cost wood, but at the expense of other values – mainly social and ecological. Society will need to choose where the emphasis should lie, but it is certainly possible, and indeed desirable, to optimise the benefits of planted forests depending on regional and national, and perhaps even global priorities – but at a cost.
Introduction
What are the benefits of planted forests; specifically the economic, ecological, and social benefits? Some might suggest that before we can address this question we first of all need to define exactly what a planted forest is. However, a precise definition is perhaps not very important as the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests April 1999 meeting in Santiago, Chile "International Experts Meeting on the Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable Forest Management" recognised that the "boundary between planted and natural forests is often indistinct. The roles fulfilled by planted forests are diverse, and a continuum of forest types exists from highly productive protected conservation forest to productive, short rotation pulp forests" (Barros, 1999).
Different forest types produce a range of values as short-rotation pulp and paper plantations are mainly focused on producing fibre, whereas forest parks and reserves generally have very low wood production but very high ecological and recreational values (Figure 1). In much the same way that we shouldn’t expect to achieve all types of benefits from forest parks and reserves, we shouldn’t expect short-rotation pulp and paper plantations to produce a full range of benefits. Clearly pulp forests are grown primarily for economic purposes and parks and reserves are managed for ecological and social values.
In 2000 the world had about 187 million ha of plantations, which accounted for 5% of global forests; with establishment rates at around 4.5 million ha/yr, the total would be closer to 200 million ha today (in 2003) but the percentage would be virtually unchanged. However, it could be argued that the world’s plantation resource is actually much larger than reported by FAO as many European countries along with Canada don’t distinguish between planted forests and natural forests. Finland and Sweden, for example, plant hundreds of thousands of hectares each year, but consider these re-planted forests as natural. Similarly Canada, despite planting hundreds of millions of seedlings every year, considers its forests to be natural, rather than planted, presumably because it plants native species, albeit often genetically improved single species planted in rows.
It’s often extremely difficult to distinguish a natural forest from a planted one, especially after several decades. Ironically even young planted forests can appear too natural causing the most unexpected problems as found for a forestry aid project in Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal:
"One unexpected outcome of open plantations is that they can look so natural, that many people regard them as natural regeneration and will not believe that they have been planted. This can cause problems when sponsors are wanting to see obvious results and assurance that their money has been properly spent." (Ledgard in press).
Thus, it seems, at least for practical purposes, a planted forest can be natural, provided it is a native species, whereas a naturally regenerated forest of exotic species, would likely be considered a plantation. But with time, even exotic species can be considered natural, as is the case with many tree species planted outside their natural range. The English chestnut (Castanea sativa) is a classic example, having been introduced by the Romans into England from southern Europe two thousand years ago and now forming natural woodlands in its adopted homeland. In fact most of the plants of the English countryside have been introduced over the last two millennia transforming what would naturally have been a rather bland countryside of a few hundred species, remnants of the last ice age, into the munificent groomed landscape that exist today (Campbell-Culver 2001).
The Forest Stewardship Council has obviously had to grapple with the conundrum of "when is a planted forest a natural forest" and has taken the position:
Some forests established or highly modified by artificial regeneration may, with time, achieve a structure and composition similar to original natural forest, and may then be classified as such. Examples include restoration planting, enrichment planting in tropical forests, and also combinations of natural and artificial regeneration aimed at achieving the structure and composition of natural forest. (Synnott 2002)
The Benefits of Planted Forests are Basically the Same as Natural Forests
Definitions can therefore be very confusing and it is pointless, as well as frustrating, to get hung up on these as the perceived benefits of all forests, whether they are considered natural or planted, are not so dependent on how they were initially established and what they are called (either planted or natural) but more so on how they are managed.
As suggested in Figure 1, it is quite conceivable that a planted forest managed on 100 year plus rotations will have similar ecological values as a natural forest managed on a similar rotation. In fact, many European forests are just that, managed, natural, planted forests. Even long-rotation exotic forests can have ecological values that could be considered superior to natural forests, although purists would likely argue otherwise.
In the very comprehensive treatise "Europe and the Forest" the various functions of forests are assigned to the three categories: Ecological, Economic, and Social (Table 1) (European Parliament 1997). While the lists of functions were developed for forests of all types, for this paper I have applied them to planted forests.
This paper discusses the economic, ecological and social benefits of planted forests. In particular it concentrates on the influences of forest management practices on these benefits, and while recognising that poor practices will have negative impacts, the paper unapologetically focuses on the benefits of well managed planted forests.
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Table 1. Benefits of (Planted) Forests (from European Parliament 1997) |
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Ecological – Regulation |
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Climate
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Moderating role Moderating role Buffering role – carbon absorption etc Fog condensation Protection against wind action |
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Air Quality
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Fixes pollutants, recycling Diffuses volatile compounds |
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Water Systems
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Reduces surface runoff Infiltration of excessive rainfall |
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Water Quality
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Fixes pollutants, recycling Reduction of sources of pollution |
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Soil Maintenance
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Protects from the impact of rain Soil stabilisation Physical protection Reduces surface runoff |
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Ecological – Protection |
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Against Natural Risk |
Torrential and sudden rises in water levels, avalanches, land slides and falling rock |
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Against Noise |
Filtering effect |
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Ecological – Preservation |
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Biological Diversity
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Provides conservation at all levels Preserves evolution potential Maintains liaisons and corridors Provides dynamic conservation by linking up forest areas into a network |
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Table 1 Benefits of Planted Forests (cont’d) |
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Economic – Production |
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Wood
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Material support for other functions Wood for building and industry Processed wood products Industrial and domestic use |
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Other Raw Materials
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Essence, resins, food flavourings Various chemical substances; tannin, latex Aromatic and medicinal plants Molecules used in food and pharmaceuticals Source of food Source of leisure and hunting activities Cork stoppers, tannins etc Production of specific plants, Christmas trees, branches Direct forest supply (holly etc) Gathering for domestic or commercial use (mushrooms, small fruit, honey etc) |
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Economic – Activities and Services |
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Environment for recreation and providing nourishment Reserve of land Hunting Leisure activities and tourism Land use planning |
Wild plant life Domestic plant life, grazing Specific cultivation systems Agricultural and mining resources Urbanisation and access routes Hunting rights Remunerated activities (recreational functions) Source of employment Maintains rural activities Creation of rural infrastructure networks |
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Social - Landscape |
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Rural landscape Urban landscape |
Landscape design Artificial landscape embellishment |
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Social - Recreational |
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Leisure-relaxation Leisure-sports Leisure-culture Eco-tourism |
Using specific visitor reception facilities Search for peace and quiet, fresh air Sports activities with or without equipment Hunting, fishing Discovering natural environments Artistic activities, photography, painting etc |
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Social - Educational |
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Information-sensitising Eco-citizenship education |
For everyone through contact between foresters and public, organisation events For children through educational visits to forests, forest theme in educational programmes |
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Social - Cultural |
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History
Myths Aesthetic and spiritual values |
Create a forest-society link throughout generations Protection of archaeological remains and historical monuments Symbolism Imagery Aesthetics: the landscape |
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Social – Strict Sense |
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Standard of living of populations Land use planning |
See economic activities and services |
Forests are Always Planted for Some Benefit
Natural forests are expected to supply a range of benefits – economic, ecological, and social – although in many countries the economic expectations have shifted from wood production to non-wood values and traditional social and ecological values have become more financially or otherwise rewarding, for example in the case of tourism or endangered species habitat.
The passage of time, expanding populations with new social values, together with rapid technological advances have also seen the initial reasons for establishing and managing planted forests changing even within relatively short rotations. Eucalyptus plantations established for the rapid supply of pulp are now being managed on longer-rotations to extract higher value solid wood products, while many plantations, initially established to reduce soil erosion are now managed primarily for wood and fibre production, although soil protection continues as a secondary objective.
Many forests that were planted to replace dwindling supplies of wood from natural forest are now considered too valuable for wood production and are reserved primarily for their social and conservation values. Some of the now very old European forests were initially planted to supply timber or resin products for navies, but centuries on they have become more important for their social values, primarily aesthetics and recreation.
Economic Benefits
The economic benefits of wood and fibre production are obvious – and that’s the main reason for most new plantation establishment. In 2000 35 percent of the global roundwood was from plantation forests, expected to increase to 44 percent by 2020 – mainly from exotic plantation forests, not "natural" planted forests. Half of all plantations are less than 15 years old and most are located in Asia. It is the author’s opinion that well before 2050 virtually all wood and fibre products will be derived from managed, planted forests in much the same way that we derive most of our food from farms today. However, take away the revenue generating capacity of natural forests and what does that mean for the ability to manage biodiversity and social values?
With only 5% of the world’s forests as plantations contributing more than 35 percent of global roundwood supply, it could be argued that as we do for agricultural, we should focus on wood and fibre production from this relatively small land area and manage the remaining 95% of the world’s forests for other values. However, that would ignore the other significant benefits that planted forests supply and not account for regional priorities.
On the economic aspects alone planted forests supply much more than just wood and fibre. The value of non-wood products is very valuable in some regions, for example tree-derived chemicals (rubber, resin, tannins etc), nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals from understorey plants, hunting revenue from game (deer and birds), cork and bark, decorative plants, food (seeds, honey, mushrooms etc), and paid recreational activities are often more important than wood.
Social Benefits
Many of the social benefits of planted forests are inextricably linked to the economic benefits, as in the case of employment, paid hunting and other recreational privileges etc. Planted forests also supply domestic fuelwood, often as their primary objective, but sometimes as a by-product of industrial wood production.
Employment benefits will depend on forest management systems and there will often be a trade-off between economic efficiency, safety, and employment numbers. National and regional economies, local legislation, experience with labour unions, and other factors will normally determine whether forest managers decide to employ people or machines (which are safer and more productive, but usually more expensive).
In many countries planted forests, like natural forests, are expected to provide recreational opportunities such as hiking, biking, horse riding, hunting and fishing. The ability of planted forests to deliver quality recreational experiences depends primarily on how the forests are managed; a similar factor for natural forests. Forests managed on longer rotations with care to special features such as water bodies or viewpoints are going to be much more desirable for recreational activities than forests managed on shorter rotations with little attention to values other than fibre production.
Ecological Benefits
Wood is simply CO2 plus H2O, so it must be good! It is one of the most renewable commodities that we use and unlike competing products such as plastic, concrete, aluminium and steel, the production and use of wood has a positive impact on global carbon levels and therefore global warming. While recognising this fact, there is still an expectation that forests should produce additional ecological benefits rather than simply provide a renewable commodity; and of course they do.
The ecological benefits of forests have been well recognised since history began and were recorded in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans:
"There were large forests in the mountains whose traces are still visible today. If, in these mountains, some only nourish bees, not so long ago trees were cut for large construction needs… The soil provided infinite foraging possibilities for livestock and also collected Zeus’ annual rainwater, which did not run over bare soil into the sea as it does today. Since the earth was still thick and received water which it stored in impermeable clay, it let water it had absorbed in the heights run down into the valleys, providing abundant springs and large rivers everywhere. (Plato, Critias, III)." (quoted in European Parliament 1997).
Today both natural and planted forests are managed for ecological benefits throughout the world and include both direct and indirect benefits.
Dealing with Desertification
FAO estimates that more than 2.6 billion people are affected by land degradation and desertification in drylands in more than 100 countries covering 5,251 million ha or more than 40% of the earth’s surface (UNFF 2002). Deforestation and overexploitation of forests are among the major causes of land degradation. Planting trees and re-establishing vegetative cover provides a mean to reverse desertification and to support agricultural production and community livelihoods. Small-scale planting of woodlots and shelterbelts can provide fuelwood and also non-wood products for communities and individuals and is particularly beneficial in countries with low forest cover.
Conserving Native Forests
A key benefit promoted for planted forests, and especially for exotic plantations, is that they enable natural forests to be conserved as evidenced in New Zealand, Japan, Australia, Chile, and Brazil etc. Today in New Zealand, for example, more than 99.5% of wood production comes from the 1.8 million hectares of exotic plantations and the remaining 6 million hectares of indigenous forest are primarily managed for conservation values. As the world population continues to expand and demand for wood products increases, it is expected that future wood supply will be met primarily by plantation forests (FAO 2001).
Replacing Natural Forests
In countries, such as Canada, the US, and northern Europe native trees are raised in nurseries and planted after forest harvesting to replace the original natural forest. Whether these forests can fulfil most, if not all, of the ecological functions of the forest they are conserving or replacing depends primarily on how they are managed.
Climatic Benefits
Trees, whether native or exotic, have similar impacts on climate. They moderate temperature and humidity, absorb CO2, provide shelter from wind, and in some situations increase fog condensation, thus replenishing soil moisture. Much is made of the potential carbon sequestration capacity of planted forests, but of course this is a finite benefit as the forests will either be harvested, or if left, eventually begin to respire more CO2 than they absorb.
Water Systems
Forests are often planted to improve the infiltration capacity of compacted soils and thereby reduce surface runoff. They are also established to improve water quality, both by direct shading of streams and lake margins, but especially by reducing nutrient and bacterial inputs as a replacement for agricultural crops or as stream buffers.
Forest systems provide such efficient filters that they are often used to treat wastewater or waste solids, either from domestic treatment plants, from industry, or from agricultural land. Forest treatment of wastes not only provides an ecological function as it purifies waste streams, but it provides a social service and often an economic benefit.
Soil Systems
Trees have long been recognised for their ability to stabilise soils and reduce erosion and few countries have not experienced the benefits of rehabilitation schemes. They benefit soil not only by holding it together and maintaining a soil mantle on hillsides, but by increasing soil carbon (organic matter) and soil fertility levels.
Biodiversity
Native forests are generally regarded as the best means to conserve indigenous biodiversity, but planted forests can also play a role. Native understorey plants can flourish under exotic tree cover and provide habitat and food sources for native fauna. While the ecological processes may be different, in many cases they are near enough to provide many of the benefits found in natural forests. This holds true for both terrestrial as well as aquatic systems.
The Role of Management
The question becomes not so much "what are the benefits of planted forests", but more, how do we maximise, or perhaps optimise these benefits to satisfy as many stakeholders as possible? This is where management has a role to play.
Intensive management to promote tree growth rates, may actually accelerate the realisation of many of the ecological, and social as well as the economic benefits that planted forests can contribute. For example, rapid tree growth induced by intensive site preparation and fertilization, has been shown to enhance soil improvement processes by increasing soil carbon storage and improving drainage through rapid root development (MacLaren 1996). This not only improves soil quality but also has a positive impact on the hydrological performance of the site. Similarly, closed canopy forests better mimic natural mature forests than do immature plantations, thus the biodiversity values of "mature" (as in large trees) plantation forests will be greater than for younger (smaller trees) forests (Allen 1995, Ogden 1997).
Whether forest management chooses to focus on ecological, social, or economic benefits is a question of priorities. Fast wood plantations, as criticised by many ENGOs etc, have a primary objective to produce fibre as quickly as possible and as profitably as possible. Society, however, often chooses to subsidise additional objectives, as in the case of Britain’s plantation forests, to enhance biodiversity and social values, thus sacrificing wood production opportunities.
The trade off between the benefits and the quality of forest management is shown in Figure 2. While overall benefits will normally increase with improved management quality, a trade off will invariably be the cost of wood. Countries that subsidise forest management to enhance social and ecological values, generally with less emphasis on wood production, often hide the additional costs of producing wood.
Good forest management does certainly not have to be expensive, and in most situations simply involves following well-established codes of practice. But, to achieve greater ecological and/or social benefits, the perceived forest management costs may increase if the unit of measure is only dollars/m3 of wood. The real cost may be much less if some other unit, such as visitor days/ year, is also used as a measure of the benefits and if "society" compensates the forest owner accordingly.
Conclusions
Planted forests are becoming increasingly important for producing wood and fibre products, providing employment and basically replacing the economic function of many natural forests. The social and ecological benefits of planted forests, while generally considered to be less important than the economic benefits, may still be very significant, depending on how the forests are managed. In fact there are many examples where the social and ecological benefits of planted forests outweighs any economic benefit from wood production to the point that wood production is insignificant.
There are two key challenges facing us today: (1) to promote the potential benefits of planted forests to society and particularly to critics of plantation forests, and (2) to promote the overall benefits of good forest management to forest owners and managers worldwide. Both challenges require credible scientific data preferably supported by robust economic analyses.
Planted forests can produce the same range of benefits as natural forests, the balance depending primarily on management priorities, which may be dictated by society rather than the forest owner.
References
Allen, R.B., Platt, K.H. and Coker, R.E.J., 1995. Understorey species composition patters in a Pinus radiata D. Don plantation on the central North Island Volcanic Plateau, New Zealand. NZ J. Forestry Science 25:301-17.
Barros, S. 1999. "Proceedings – International Experts Meeting on the Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable Forest Management" – Santiago, Chile, April 6-10, 1999. Edited by Santiago Barros.
Campbell-Culver, M. 2001 "The Origin of Plants". Headline Book Publishing, London. 260 p.
European Parliament 1997. Europe and the Forest. Division de l’Agriculture, de la Peche, des Forets et du Developpement rural, Luxembourg.
FAO 2001. State of the World’s Forests 2001. Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome.
Ledgard, N.J. (presented in 2002, and accepted for publication): Forestry in Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal. Austrian Journal of Foresty.
Maclaren, J.P., 1996. The Environmental Effects of Planted Forests in New Zealand - the implications of continued afforestation of pasture. New Zealand Forest Research Institute, FRI Bulletin No. 198. 180 p.
Ogden, J., Braggins, J., Stretton, K. and Anderson, S., 1997. Plant species richness under Pinus radiata stands on the central North Island volcanic plateau, New Zealand. NZ J. Ecology 21: 17-29.
Synnott, T. J. 2002. Review of FSC plantation policies: An FSC discussion paper – Clarification of FSC’s position on plantation certification.
UNFF 2002. Rehabilitation and restoration of degraded lands and the promotion of natural and planted forests. United Nations Economic and Social Council, Report of the Secretary Gen. 19p.
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